Background
Methods
Study Populations
Demographic and clinical assessment
Dietary assessment
Arterial Stiffness
Statistical Methods
Study population(n = 364)
|
Control (n = 93)
|
P-value
| |
---|---|---|---|
Characteristics
|
Mean (± SD)
|
Mean (± SD)
| |
Age (years)
| 66.2 ± 10.2 | 65.3 ± 7.1 | 0.417 |
Male,
n
(%)
| 233 (64%) | 49 (53%) | 0.056 |
BMI (kg/m2)
| 24.99 ± 3.30 | 23.80 ± 3.40 | 0.002* |
Waist-to-hip ratio
| 0.93 ± 0.06 | 0.91 ± 0.08 | <0.001* |
Ischemic stroke,
n
(%)
| 49 (13.46) | ---- | <0.001* |
Coronary artery disease,
n
(%)
| 224 (61.54) | ---- | <0.001* |
Diabetes mellitus,
n
(%)
| 200 (54.95) | ---- | <0.001* |
Hypertension,
n
(%)
| 232 (63.74) | 22 (23.66) | <0.001* |
Hyperlipidaemia,
n
(%)
| 232 (63.74) | 30 (32.26) | <0.001* |
Smokers,
n
(%)
| 165 (45.33) | 14 (15.05) | <0.001* |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)
| 141.00 ± 19.85 | 127.82 ± 18.04 | <0.001* |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)
| 79.16 ± 9.19 | 75.06 ± 9.32 | <0.001* |
Total serum cholesterol (mmol/L)
| 4.50 ± 0.89 | 5.12 ± 0.83 | <0.001* |
Serum HDL-C (mmol/L)
| 1.28 ± 0.34 | 1.48 ± 0.40 | <0.001* |
Serum LDL-C (mmol/L)
| 2.56 ± 0.72 | 3.05 ± 0.76 | <0.001* |
Serum triacylglycerol (mmol/L)
| 1.49 ± 0.97 | 1.34 ± 0.74 | 0.167 |
Fasting glucose (mmol/L)
| 6.36 ± 2.07 | 5.16 ± 0.60 | <0.001* |
HbA1c (%)
| 7.05 ± 1.48 | 6.63 ± 5.33 | 0.192 |
Medications
| |||
Beta-blocker,
n
(%)
| 184 (50.55) | 6 (6.5) | <0.001* |
ACEI/ARB,
n
(%)
| 36 (9.9) | ----- | <0.001* |
Statin,
n
(%)
| 226 (62.09) | 3 (3.2) | <0.001* |
PWV (cm/s)
| 1102.17 ± 144.54 | 1079.48 ± 135.09 | 0.172 |
Results
Baseline characteristics
Study population (n = 364)
|
Control subjects (n = 93)
|
P-value
| |
---|---|---|---|
Characteristics
|
Mean (± SD)
|
Mean (± SD)
| |
Energy intake/day (Kcal/d)
| 1978.22 ± 725.57 | 2393.10 ± 836.76 | <0.001* |
Carbohydrate (g/d)
| 359.85 ± 145.80 | 436.88 ± 168.39 | <0.001* |
High carbohydrate diet (≧60%) (n,%)
| 346 (95.05) | 85 (91.40) | 0.207 |
Protein (g/d)
| 73.95 ± 27.43 | 87.06 ± 35.26 | <0.001* |
Fat (g/d)
| 26.97 ± 15.48 | 32.98 ± 17.70 | 0.001* |
Carbohydrate (% of energy )
| 72.32 ± 7.62 | 72.54 ± 8.80 | 0.807 |
Protein (% of energy )
| 15.21 ± 2.94 | 14.81 ± 3.68 | 0.271 |
Fat (% of energy )
| 12.46 ± 5.39 | 12.63 ± 5.76 | 0.794 |
Rice
| 451.63 ± 191.80 | 539.36 ± 221.40 | <0.001* |
Vegetables
| 132.78 ± 98.82 | 161.07 ± 109.71 | 0.016* |
Meat
| 61.41 ± 58.41 | 79.25 ± 112.54 | 0.035* |
Poultry
| 19.09 ± 20.85 | 23.85 ± 25.77 | 0.062 |
Fish
| 68.23 ± 70.13 | 63.56 ± 53.48 | 0.549 |
Egg
| 9.25 ± 12.72 | 9.50 ± 11.00 | 0.864 |
Fruit
| 53.95 ± 40.80 | 70.13 ± 48.98 | 0.001* |
Soy
| 32.79 ± 45.75 | 49.80 ± 71.00 | 0.005* |
Fiber
| 9.26 ± 6.33 | 10.63 ± 4.72 | 0.051 |
Saturated fat
| 7.00 ± 4.72 | 9.08 ± 6.43 | <0.001* |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids
| 5.06 ± 2.63 | 6.15 ± 3.51 | 0.002* |
Effects of dietary high carbohydrate diet on blood pressure and lipid profile
B (95% CI)
|
Adjusted p-value
| |
---|---|---|
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)
| ||
Without high carbohydrate diet (<60%) | ||
High carbohydrate diet (≧60%) | 2.86 (1.96 to 3.76) | <0.001* |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)
| ||
Without high carbohydrate diet (<60%) | ||
High carbohydrate (≧60%) | 0.68 (-1.26 to 2.62) | 0.491 |
Total cholesterol (mmol/L)
| ||
Without high carbohydrate diet (<60%) | ||
High carbohydrate (≧60%) | 23.57 (-38.98 to 86.11) | 0.459 |
HDL cholesterol (mmol/L)
| ||
Without high carbohydrate diet (<60%) | ||
High carbohydrate (≧60%) | -38.96 (-109.85 to 31.93) | 0.280 |
LDL cholesterol (mmol/L)
| ||
Without high carbohydrate diet (<60%) | ||
High carbohydrate (≧60%) | -8.75 (-75.29 to 57.80) | 0.796 |
Triacylglycerol (mmol/L)
| ||
Without high carbohydrate diet (<60%) | ||
High carbohydrate (≧60%) | -2.80 (-28.87 to 23.27) | 0.833 |
Effects of high carbohydrate diet on pulse wave velocity
Univariate model | Multivariate model1
| |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All subjects included (n = 457)
|
All subjects included (n = 457)
|
CVD/ risk equivalent (n = 364)
|
Healthy controls (n = 93)
| |||||
β (95% CI)
|
p-value
| β (95% CI)
|
p-value
| β (95% CI)
|
p-value
| β (95% CI)
|
p-value
| |
Age
| 6.61 (5.39 to 7.83) | <0.001* | 6.68 (5.42 to 7.94) | <0.001* | 6.27 (4.93 to 7.61) | <0.001* | 9.88 (5.77 to 13.99) | <0.001* |
Male
| 28.08 (1.17 to 55.00) | 0.041 | 33.38 (8.40 to 58.36) | 0.009* | 23.55 (-4.46 to 51.56) | 0.099 | 67.87 (10.17 to 125.58) | 0.022* |
Diabetes mellitus
| 18.81 (-8.19 to 45.80) | 0.172 | 46.34 (18.93 to 73.76) | 0.001* | 43.18 (15.22 to 71.14) | 0.003* | 150.75 (-88.20 to 389.71) | 0.212 |
Hypertension
| 69.97 (44.07 to 95.87) | <0.001* | 53.52 (27.82 to 79.21) | <0.001* | 58.61 (30.39 to 86.83) | <0.001* | 22.69 (-45.87 to 91.25) | 0.511 |
Hyperlipidaemia
| 13.60 (-13.88 to 41.08) | 0.331 | ||||||
Past or current smokers
| 49.39 (-67.71 to 166.48) | 0.401 | ||||||
BMI
| -1.14 (-5.07 to 2.79) | 0.569 | ||||||
Medications
| ||||||||
Beta-blocker
| 22.17 (-5.02 to 49.36) | 0.110 | -0.90 (-27.55 to 25.75) | 0.95 | 0.29 (-27.35 to 27.92) | 0.984 | -17.61 (-130.81 to 95.60) | 0.757 |
ACEI/ARB
| 19.31 (-29.41 to 68.03) | 0.436 | ||||||
Statin
| 6.17 (-20.43 to 32.76) | 0.649 | ||||||
Dietary energy intake
| 0.003 (-0.015 to 0.020) | 0.769 | ||||||
Saturated fatty acid
| -2.31 (-4.84 to 0.22) | 0.074 | -0.58 (-3.03 to 1.87) | 0.643 | 0.47 (-2.42 to 3.35) | 0.750 | -3.39 (-8.07 to 1.28) | 0.151 |
PUFA
| -2.12 (-6.71 to 2.47) | 0.364 | ||||||
MUFA
| -4.97 (-2.33 to 1.33) | 0.594 | ||||||
Fiber
| -0.103 (-2.28 to 2.07) | 0.926 | ||||||
CVD/risk equivalent
3
| 22.68 (-9.90 to 55.26) | 0.172 | -51.81 (-90.32 to -13.30) | 0.008* | - | - | - | - |
High carbohydrate diet (≧60%)
| 50.52 (-6.03 to 107.07) | 0.080 | 52.46 (-3.09 to 108.01) | 0.064 | 73.50 (10.81 to 136.19) Full Model Estimate2: 231.39 (87.19 to 375.58) | 0.022* 0.003* | -28.52 (-147.83 to 90.80) | 0.634 |