Introduction
Procrastination, the deliberate postponement of intended actions despite anticipated deleterious outcomes [
76], manifests as a pervasive and disruptive phenomenon. It hinders various aspects of life, encompassing academic performances [
3], career achievement [
54], as well as physical and mental health (e.g., satisfaction) [
32,
51,
72]. Therefore, it is crucial to explore potential factors that may influence procrastination. It has been found that procrastination was related to various personality traits, including neuroticism, impulsivity, and self-control [
66,
76]. Notably, future self-continuity, a relatively stable personality trait, exhibits a robust negative correlation with procrastination [
17,
73]. Nonetheless, the neural underpinnings of this association remain unclear.
Future self-continuity refers to the perception of psychological connectedness between one’s present self and future self [
29]. When individuals perceive the sense of consistency with their future selves, they engage in the cognitive processes of mentally projecting themselves into the future and pre-experiencing anticipated events, commonly known as episodic future thinking [
8]. This process contributes to their decision-making and judgmental processes, shaping their attitudes and behaviors toward future outcomes [
20,
50]. Individuals with high levels of future self-continuity perceive a greater overlap with their future selves and are more inclined to prioritize long-term benefits over immediate gains [
9,
10,
39,
61]. Furthermore, high future self-continuity correlates with a greater propensity for envisioned positive future scenarios [
34,
56,
81]. On the flip side, the core issue underlying procrastination is whether to do it now or later [
83]. Procrastination involves making choices that affect our future, highlighting a failure in self-regulation. It reveals a disjunction between one’s present and future self [
73]. Moreover, the temporal decision model of procrastination (TDM) highlights the conflict between one’s present self and future self [
83]. Specifically, the present self is reluctant to endure the task aversiveness and prefers to delay it, while the future self is responsible for the task’s outcome value and desires its timely execution. This trade-off between negative task-engagement and positive task-outcome is evaluated by episodic future thinking. The combination of anticipating positive outcomes and negative engagement could predict task procrastination [
80]. When the perceived task aversiveness outweighs the anticipated positive outcomes, individuals are more inclined to procrastinate [
82,
83]. Collectively, we assume that individuals with elevated levels of future self-continuity could anticipate more positive outcomes, thereby reducing procrastination.
Some exploratory research has been conducted on the neural basis of future self-continuity. Previous investigations have shed light on the role of cortical midline structures (CMS), including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), in relation to future self-continuity [
19,
24,
25,
29,
44]. Specifically, researchers found reduced brain activity in the vmPFC when participants contemplated future events. This reduction has emerged as a predictor of the proclivity for shortsighted decisions regarding one’s future self [
55]. It is acknowledged that the vmPFC is a core region implicated in episodic future thinking [
1,
13,
26]. VBM studies reported that the gray matter (GM) volume of vmPFC and parahippocampal gyrus (PHC) was negatively correlated with future time perspective, a construct that encompasses individuals’ attitudes towards the future [
52]. Moreover, the lesion study demonstrated that patients with vmPFC damage revealed impairments in episodic future thinking, especially the construction of future scenarios [
14,
15]. In task fMRI studies, some researchers reported significant vmPFC activation when individuals anticipated positive future events [
16,
71], a state associated with individuals exhibiting heightened levels of future self-continuity. Furthermore, future self-continuity pertains to the perceived connection between one’s present self and future self, potentially associated with brain regions involved in self-referential processing, notably the vmPFC [
58,
69]. Individuals with elevated future self-continuity often demonstrate a preference for long-term rewards [
9,
10]. According to task fMRI studies, the BOLD activity in the vmPFC exhibits a proportional relationship with the subjective value of delayed rewards [
42,
63]. Therefore, the vmPFC might play a key role in future self-continuity. Similarly, another fMRI study found that participants exhibited heightened activation of the medial prefrontal cortex when evaluating stimuli linked to their present selves, and enhanced activation in the inferior parietal cortex when processing information concerning their future selves [
25]. The IPL, a crucial component of the frontoparietal network (FPN) and default mode network (DMN), supports the episodic simulation of future events [
12,
28,
68]. Researchers found that participants had difficulties in differentiating themselves from a highly familiar other following repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to the right IPL [
77]. Hence, the IPL may engage in self-reference processing. In summary, we assume that brain regions associated with episodic prospection, self-reference, and value representation, such as the vmPFC, PHC, and IPL, appear to be linked with future self-continuity.
Additionally, researchers have discovered that episodic prospection work, which includes the vmPFC and parahippocampal gyrus, constitutes a component of the triple brain networks involved in procrastination [
22,
23]. Moreover, investigations have revealed a significant correlation between the GM volumes in the vmPFC and PHC with procrastination, thus implicating the ability to envision future scenarios [
41,
52]. Resting-state fMRI study also found that the regional activity of the vmPFC and the PHC was positively correlated with procrastination [
84]. Taken together, we hypothesize that the brain regions of future self-continuity, such as the vmPFC, PHC and IPL, may prompt individuals to envision more future rewards, subsequently reducing procrastination.
Therefore, the current study aims to explore the neurocognitive substrates underlying the impact of future self-continuity on procrastination. We employed the free construction method to collect individuals’ spontaneously generated thoughts when anticipating and evaluating procrastination tasks [
33,
80]. This method is an undisturbed observation approach that reveals individuals’ habitual use of construction strategies and captures cognitive mechanisms unbiasedly [
31,
60]. Subsequently, these thoughts were categorized according to the 2 (emotional valence: positive vs negative) × 2 (imaginary direction: outcome vs engagement) model of episodic future thinking [
80]. To explore the neural anatomy associations related to future self-continuity, we employed voxel-based morphometry, a robust method widely utilized for detecting structural differences in the brain [
6]. Based on VBM results, we employed resting-state functional connectivity to investigate the connectivity patterns associated with future self-continuity [
4]. In this study, both VBM and RSFC analyses were explorational in nature, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of the neural basis underlying future self-continuity, encompassing both structural and functional aspects [
49]. Firstly, we collected individuals’ episodic future thinking thoughts using the free construction method. We then assessed participants’ future self-continuity scores and trait procrastination using the Future Self-Continuity Questionnaire (FSCQ) and General Procrastination Scale (GPS) [
47,
74], respectively. Secondly, we conducted both VBM to explore the associations between gray matter volumes and future self-continuity, and RSFC to reveal the functional coupling of future self-continuity. Finally, a mediation analysis was performed to further testify whether the brain pathway related to future self-continuity influences procrastination through episodic future thinking.
Discussion
The current study aimed to uncover the neural underpinning responsible for the effect of future self-continuity on procrastination. The behavioral results indicated that future self-continuity was negatively correlated with procrastination. Furthermore, VBM analysis found a positive correlation between future self-continuity and gray matter volumes in the right ventromedial prefrontal cortex. The RSFC results demonstrated that the vmPFC-IPL functional connectivity was positively associated with future self-continuity. Moreover, the mediation analysis showed that the vmPFC-IPL coupling, which underlies the neural correlates of future self-continuity, exerted an impact on procrastination through anticipated positive outcome. Overall, these findings suggest that the functional connectivity between the right vmPFC and the left IPL may support individuals in envisioning more positive outcomes, ultimately reducing procrastination. This provides novel insights into the neural mechanism underlying the relationship between future self-continuity and procrastination.
Consistent with our hypothesis, higher future self-continuity was associated with reduced task procrastination, which can be attributed to heightened anticipations of positive outcomes. High future self-continuity individuals recognize that their present actions and decisions will have consequences for their future selves. This recognition leads to a greater sense of personal responsibility and a more proactive decision-making approach that prioritizes future rewards over immediate needs [
2,
40,
45]. Based on the future self-continuity model [
39], individuals with high future self-continuity tend to perceive significant similarities between their future and present selves [
10]. They also exhibit more vivid mental imagery when imaging their future selves [
18,
78], and hold more positive expectations pertaining to future outcomes [
81]. In the context of procrastination, more episodic prospection of positive outcome could lead to an increase in outcome value of the task, ultimately leading to reduced procrastination behavior [
83]. Our investigation aligns with earlier finding on episodic future thinking, which found that the anticipation of positive outcomes, a core component of EFT, is crucial in the reduction of procrastination [
80]. We complement this by demonstrating that high future self-continuity individuals can anticipate more positive outcome, thus mitigating procrastination behaviors. Furthermore, Liu et al. [
52] revealed that future time perspective negatively correlated with procrastination. This evidence jointly suggests a positive future-oriented thinking plays a crucial role in reducing procrastination. Hence, individuals characterized by elevated future self-continuity may anticipate more positive outcomes associated with procrastination tasks, thereby promoting task execution and reducing procrastination tendencies.
The VBM analysis unveiled a positive correlation between GM volumes in the right ventromedial prefrontal cortex and future self-continuity. According to previous studies, the vmPFC constitutes a central neural hub engaged in episodic future thinking, self-referential processing, and the representation of subjective value [
27,
42,
68]. Some research has identified a negative correlation between the volume of GM in the left vmPFC and future time perspective [
52]. Our results collectively affirm the critical role of vmPFC in future-oriented thinking. Besides, Yang et al. [
80] found that the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) was positively correlated with anticipated positive outcomes. Complementary to this, applying active transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the left dlPFC could increase task outcome value (Xu et al., 2023). Taken together, these findings suggest that the prefrontal cortex, especially vmPFC and dlPFC, may all be responsible for simulating future outcomes. Neuropsychological investigations focused on brain lesions have demonstrated that damage to the vmPFC impaired the ability of episodic future thinking [
14,
15]. Furthermore, activation in the vmPFC amplified during the simulation of positive future scenarios, and this activation correlated with the anticipated reward magnitude of imagined experiences [
13]. Besides, when individuals were faced with different value-based decision options during intertemporal choice, the vmPFC was also activated [
42,
43,
48]. Consequently, our findings propose a significant involvement of the vmPFC in future self-continuity, implying a fundamental association between future self-continuity and anticipated positive outcomes.
The RSFC analysis demonstrated a positive association between the right vmPFC-left IPL functional connectivity and future self-continuity. As part of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) subsystem, the inferior parietal lobule serves as a pivotal region for the construction of imagined scenes based on detailed episodic retrieval [
12,
36,
68]. Researchers have found IPL activity increased during the construction of future events [
53]. Additionally, RSFC analysis demonstrated a stronger coupling between the hippocampus and the IPL after the induction of episodic specificity. This finding empirically supports that IPL is linked to episodic future thinking processes [
53]. Furthermore, task-related fMRI studies unveiled that the parietal cortex exhibited a greater representation of subjective time experience [
37,
59]. In a comprehensive context, a notable trait among individuals with high levels of future self-continuity is the subjective perception of cross-temporal self-consistency [
70]. Moreover, other researchers found that the inferior parietal cortex played a role in discerning the current self from temporally distant selves [
25]. Collectively, our RSFC analysis suggests that the connectivity between the right vmPFC and the left IPL, potentially contributing to heightened positive future outcome episodic prospection, underpins the neural basis for future self-continuity.
In line with our hypothesis, the mediation analysis indicated that the functional connectivity of future self-continuity indirectly influenced procrastination, with anticipated positive outcome serving as a complete mediating factor. According to the future self-continuity model, people with high future self-continuity tend to hold a positive outlook regarding their future selves [
39]. A preceding study has shown that a strong connectedness between one’s current self and temporal self results in a more favorable valuation of the future scenarios [
81]. As mentioned above, the vmPFC-IPL functional connectivity could support more anticipated positive future outcomes. Concerning the issue of procrastination, the triple brain networks of procrastination posited that the vmPFC is engaged in episodic prospection [
22]. Specifically, procrastination demonstrated a positive association with spontaneous activity in the vmPFC [
84]. Moreover, the integrity of white matter connectivity between the insula and IPL was found to be negatively correlated to procrastination [
23]. Besides, the temporal decision model suggests that the anticipation of positive outcomes could increase the utility of future rewards for upcoming tasks, consequently reducing procrastination [
82]. In summary, these findings suggest that the vmPFC-IPL functional connectivity associated with future self-continuity might increase individuals’ anticipation of positive outcomes, leading to more subjective value of future tasks and reducing procrastination.
The present study possessed certain limitations that should be acknowledged. Firstly, although we logically found the reasonable neural substrates underlying the link between future self-continuity and procrastination, our findings cannot be simply inferred as the causal effect. To delve deeper into the chain of causation, future researchers could consider employing brain stimulation studies on targeted brain regions or employing task fMRI to characterize variations in dynamic BOLD responses. The second limitation of the current study is the homogeneity of our sample, which was predominantly composed of university students. This demographic homogeneity limits the reproductivity and generalizability of our findings to the broader population. Future research should extend these findings across a wider demographic spectrum, including variations in age, educational background, and life experiences. Thirdly, our study focused exclusively on the relationship between future self-continuity and task procrastination, without extension to trait procrastination, which failed to capture the procrastination tendencies. This gap limits the depth of our understanding regarding the impact of future self-continuity on procrastination. Future studies could employ longitudinal designs to assess procrastination tendencies to fully grasp the relationship between future self-continuity and procrastination from both situational and dispositional perspectives.
In summary, our study contributes valuable evidence supporting the mediating role of anticipated positive outcome in the association between future self-continuity and procrastination. The VBM analysis found that the GM volume of the right vmPFC was significantly positively related to future self-continuity. Furthermore, the RSFC results showed that vmPFC-IPL functional connectivity was positively correlated with future self-continuity. Notably, this functional pattern exerts an impact on procrastination through anticipated positive outcome. Collectively, these findings provide novel insights for the development of interventions aimed at reducing procrastination tendencies by enhancing episodic prospection of positive outcomes.
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