Background
Methods
Data source and participants
Measures
Outcome variables
Psychometric evaluation of outcome variables
Item-test correlation | Item-total correlation | alpha if item deleted | CFA FL (STDYX) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Adapted WHO-5 Well-being scale: Since the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic … | ||||
I have felt cheerful in good spirits | 0.79 | 0.67 | 0.86 | 0.70 |
I have felt calm and relaxed | 0.85 | 0.76 | 0.84 | 0.81 |
I have felt active and vigorous | 0.81 | 0.70 | 0.86 | 0.80 |
I woke up feeling fresh and rested | 0.83 | 0.72 | 0.85 | 0.84 |
My daily life has been filled with things that interest me | 0.82 | 0.71 | 0.86 | 0.80 |
Adapted Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale: since the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic I have … | ||||
Being feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge | 0.79 | 0.68 | 0.86 | 0.83 |
Not being able to stop or control worrying | 0.80 | 0.71 | 0.86 | 0.86 |
Worrying too much about different things | 0.79 | 0.69 | 0.86 | 0.83 |
Trouble relaxing | 0.79 | 0.70 | 0.86 | 0.84 |
Being so restless that it is hard to sit still | 0.70 | 0.60 | 0.87 | 0.75 |
Becoming easily annoyed or irritable | 0.69 | 0.59 | 0.87 | 0.73 |
Feeling afraid as if something awful might happen | 0.77 | 67.00 | 0.86 | 0.80 |
Adapted Boredom Proneness Scale: since the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic... | ||||
1. I often find myself at “loose ends,” not knowing what to do. | 0.79 | 0.72 | 0.89 | 0.77 |
2. I find it hard to entertain myself | 0.79 | 0.71 | 0.89 | 0.76 |
3.Many things I have to do are repetitive and monotonous. | 0.69 | 0.58 | 0.90 | 0.65 |
4. It takes more stimulation to get me going than most people. | 0.79 | 0.72 | 0.89 | 0.80 |
5. I don’t feel motivated by most things that I do | 0.81 | 0.75 | 0.89 | 0.83 |
6. In most situations, it is hard for me to find something to do or see to keep me interested. | 0.84 | 0.78 | 0.89 | 0.86 |
7. Much of the time, I just sit around doing nothing | 0.77 | 0.68 | 0.90 | 0.76 |
8.Unless I am doing something exciting, even dangerous, I feel half-dead and dull. | 0.76 | 0.68 | 0.90 | 0.77 |
Independent variables
Data analysis
Model Fit Indices | WHO Well-Being Index | Generalized Anxiety Disorder | Boredom Proneness | Criterion |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chi-Square (df, p-value) | 10.9 (4, 0.03) | 85.3 (13, 0) | 194.9 (28, 0) | p ≥ 0.05 |
RMSEA | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.11 | ≤0.08 |
CFI | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.98 | ≥0.95 |
TLI | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.98 | ≥0.95 |
SRMR | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.02 | ≤0.08 |
Results
Sample characteristics
Sample Characteristics | Percent (%) |
---|---|
Sex | |
Females | 49.9 |
Males | 50.1 |
Age range | |
18–24 | 6.3 |
25–34 | 46.9 |
35–44 | 30.2 |
45–54 | 11.9 |
55–64 | 3.6 |
65+ | 1.1 |
Marital status | |
Single | 43.2 |
Married | 56.8 |
Number of children | |
0 | 44.1 |
1 | 13.1 |
2 | 17.5 |
3 | 17.3 |
4 | 5.5 |
More than 4 | 2.5 |
Education | |
Secondary & lower | 3.2 |
Post-Secondary | 23.5 |
Bachelor’s | 32.4 |
Master’s | 29.4 |
Doctorate | 11.5 |
Employment Status | |
Unemployed | 15.6 |
Employed | 84.4 |
Socio-Economic Status | |
Low income | 14.9 |
Lower middle income | 59.8 |
High income | 1.9 |
Higher middle income | 23.4 |
Place of Residence | |
Rural | 20.8 |
Urban | 79.2 |
Infection with COVID-19 | |
No | 89.0 |
Not sure | 8.6 |
Yes | 2.4 |
COVID-19 infection with household member | |
No | 90.7 |
Not sure | 6.4 |
Yes | 2.9 |
Concern about COVID-19 | |
Not to somewhat concern | 8.5 |
Moderately concerned | 14.1 |
Extremely concerned | 77.4 |
Existing Medical Condition | |
No condition | 81.2 |
Not sure | 7.8 |
Have a medical condition | 11.0 |
Outcome variables | Paired Z test (Mean-comparison test) | 95% CI |
---|---|---|
Mean diff (Std. Err.) | ||
Boredom before and during COVID-19 | 2.68 (0.07) | [2.56, 2.80] |
Generalized Anxiety Disorders before and during COVID-19 | 2.01 (0.03) | [1.90, 2.13] |
WHO-Wellbeing before and during COVID-19 | -3.31 (0.01) | [−3.43, −3.19] |
Multivariable linear regression results predicting boredom, anxiety and well-being
Boredom | Anxiety | WHO Well-Being | |
---|---|---|---|
ß (Std. Err) | ß (Std. Err) | ß (Std. Err) | |
Sex | |||
Females (Ref.) | |||
Males | -1.14 (0.48) * | -0.97 (0.35) ** | 0.74 (0.40) |
Age range | |||
18–24 (Ref.) | |||
25–34 | −2.13 (1.30) | 1.07 (0.84) | 0.39 (0.92) |
35–44 | −1.23 (1.46) | 1.76 (0.94) | −0.12 (1.09) |
45–54 | −2.77 (1.58) | −0.35 (1.05) | 0.27 (1.26) |
55–64 | −4.32 (2.03) * | 0.04 (1.29) | 0.49 (1.47) |
65+ | −4.49 (1.81) * | −2.23 (1.33) | 4.30 (1.44) ** |
Marital status | |||
Single (Ref.) | |||
Married | −0.77 (0.75) | −1.17 (0.54) * | 0.87 (0.63) |
Number of children | |||
0 (Ref.) | |||
1 | 0.74 (0.75) | 0.45 (0.70) | −1.21 (0.78) |
2 | −0.79 (0.82) | 0.11 (0.64) | −0.82 (0.78) |
3 | 0.16 (.99) | 0.96 (0.73) | −0.37 (0.84) |
4 | −0.19 (1.59) | 0.34 (0.99) | −1.48 (1.04) |
More than 4 | 0.72 (1.20) | 2.20 (1.20) | −4.28 (1.35) ** |
Education | |||
Secondary & lower (Ref) | |||
Post-Secondary | −0.43 (1.38) | 1.23 (0.79) | −3.59 (1.06) *** |
Bachelor’s | 0.27 (1.36) | 0.55 (0.77) | −3.14 (1.04) ** |
Master’s | 0.29 (1.36) | 1.30 (0.81) | −3.12 (1.07) ** |
Doctorate | −0.67 (1.46) | 0.49 (0.93) | −3.24 (0.18) * |
Employment Status | |||
Unemployed (Ref.) | |||
Employed | −0.59 (0.86) | 0.20 (0.66) | 0.14 (0.69) |
Socio-Economic Status | |||
Low income (Ref.) | |||
Lower Middle income | −0.26 (0.84) | 0.22 (0.57) | 0.54 (0.64) |
High income | −1.39 (1.73) | 0.02 (0.79) | 4.92 (1.45) * |
Higher Middle income | 0.60 (0.96) | −0.11 (1.15) | 1.36 (0.77) |
COVID-19 infection with household member | |||
No (Ref.) | |||
Not sure | 1.19 (1.05) | 1.35 (0.0.79) | −0.72 (0.75) |
Yes | 1.41 (1.38) | −0.12 (1.15) | 0.86 (0.92) |
Boredom before COVID-19 | 0.89 (0.03) *** | ||
Anxiety before COVID-19 | 0.59 (0.04) *** | −0.25 (0.04) *** | |
Concern about COVID-19 | |||
Not to somewhat concern (Ref) | |||
Moderately concerned | 0.51 (0.69) | 0.65 (0.86) | |
Extremely concerned | 1.24 (0.57) * | −1.53 (0.69) | |
Existing Medical Condition | |||
No condition (Ref.) | |||
Not sure | 1.78 (1.09) | 0.91 (0.39) | −0.85 (0.58) |
Have a medical condition | 1.76 (0.80) *** | 1.83 (0.65) ** | −1.53 (0.58) ** |
Root MSE | 6.52 | 4.81 | 5.42 |
Adjusted R-Squared | 0.59 | 0.31 | 0.11 |
Multivariable linear regression results predicting changes in boredom, anxiety and well-being scores
△ Boredom | △ Anxiety | △ WHO Well-Being | |
---|---|---|---|
ß (Std. Err) | ß (Std. Err) | ß (Std. Err) | |
Sex | |||
Females (Ref.) | |||
Males | −1.04 (0.48) * | −0.99 (0.35) ** | − 0.17 (0.35) |
Age range | |||
18–24 (Ref.) | |||
25–34 | −1.99 (1.28) | 1.10 (0.84) | −1.14 (0.69) |
35–44 | −1.14 (1.45) | 1.77 (0.95) | −1.92 (0.84) * |
45–54 | −2.82 (1.58) | − 0.35 (1.05) | − 2.08 (0.97) * |
55–64 | −4.22 (2.03) * | 0.07 (1.29) | −4.31 (1.37) ** |
65+ | −4.32 (1.83) * | −2.29 (1.33) | −1.48 (1.17) |
Marital status | |||
Single (Ref.) | |||
Married | −0.71 (0.75) | −1.17 (0.54) * | 0.25 (0.51) |
Number of children | |||
0 (Ref.) | |||
1 | 0.75 (0.98) | 0.45 (0.71) | −0.02 (0.62) |
2 | −0.90 (0.84) | 0.14 (0.64) | −0.69 (0.65) |
3 | 0.13 (1.02) | 0.97 (0.74) | −0.02 (0.67) |
4 | −0.22 (1.62) | 0.33 (0.99) | 0.06 (1.04) |
More than 4 | 0.57 (1.24) | 2.26 (1.20) | −2.04 (1.29) |
Education | |||
Secondary & lower (Ref) | |||
Post-Secondary | −0.41 (1.34) | 0.57 (0.79) | 2.34 (0.83) *** |
Bachelor’s | −0.73 (0.68) | 0.66 (0.48) | −1.07 (0.50) * |
Master’s | 0.01 (0.69) | 0.72 (0.48) | 0.22 (0.45) |
Doctorate | −1.00 (0.88) | −0.13 (0.68) | −0.12 (0.71) |
Employment Status | |||
Unemployed (Ref.) | |||
Employed | −0.63 (0.86) | 0.24 (0.66) | 0.47 (0.57) |
Socio-Economic Status | |||
Low income (Ref.) | |||
Lower Middle income | −1.38 (1.25) | 0.22 (0.57) | 0.54 (0.64) |
High income | −0.53 (0.95) | 0.10 (0.58) | 4.92 (1.45) |
Higher Middle income | 0.21 (0.83) | −0.10 (0.64) | 1.36 (0.77) |
Infection with COVID-19 | |||
No (Ref.) | |||
Not sure | 1.38 (1.25) | −0.06 (0.93) | 0.01 (0.69) |
Yes | 1.61 (1.42) | −1.41 (1.13) | 0.03 (0.40) |
COVID-19 infection with household member | |||
No (Ref.) | |||
Not sure | −0.29 (1.00) | −1.45 (1.03) | 0.09 (0.72) |
Yes | −0.10 (1.84) | 0.19 (1.18) | −0.67 (0.80) |
Boredom before COVID-19 | −0.11 (0.03) *** | ||
Anxiety before COVID-19 | −0.41 (0.04) *** | −0.31 (0.04) *** | |
Concern about COVID-19 | |||
Not to somewhat concern (Ref) | |||
Moderately concerned | −0.29 (1.00) * | 0.47 (0.69) | 0.01 (0.69) |
Extremely concerned | −0.09 (0.84) | 1.19 (0.57) * | −0.03 (0.93) |
Existing Medical Condition | |||
No condition (Ref.) | |||
Not sure | 1.77 (1.09) | 0.89 (0.63) | 0.51 (0.65) |
Have a medical condition | 1.78 (0.81) * | 1.87 (0.65) ** | 0.96 (0.54) ** |
Root MSE | 6.53 | 4.82 | 4.75 |
Adjusted R-Squared | 0.07 | 0.20 | 0.11 |