Early urate-lowering therapy in gouty arthritis with acute flares: a double-blind placebo controlled clinical trial

Gout is a chronic systemic disease that features intermittent monoarthritis in different joints including the first metatarsal joint, tarsal joint, ankle, knee, and wrist. Most patients with gout may not take regular medication for its control; thus, intermittent arthritis attacks result. Except during recurrent arthritis episodes, systemic inflammation may develop during the progression of gouty arthritis (GA). Elevations in serum acute phase proteins, including C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), occur in patients with acute gout flare. Increased expression of different inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1, and tumor necrosis factor-α, are observed during acute gout attacks [1‐3]. However, these cytokines are not measured in most patients clinically. Therefore, GA is not only an arthritis-related disease, it is a systemic inflammatory disease during acute flares. Clinically higher rates of cardiovascular events are observed in patients with GA than in the general population. Further, hyperuricemia is always found in patients with GA. Hyperuricemia is associated with a higher body mass index, blood pressure, and hyperlipidemia [4]. Recurrent arthritis in GA patients may induce tophus formation and erosive joint damage if GA remains uncontrolled. Aggressive formation of multiple tophi in polyarthritis may also lead to the progression to end-stage GA with significant joint deformity. Chronic kidney disease and intermittent formation of renal stone-related nephrolithiasis commonly occur in patients with gout [5]. Patients with GA have different co-morbidities, including hypertension, diabetes, and chronic kidney disease. In the management of GA, the long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may enhance the progression of organic damage including renal, peptic ulcer, and cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, urate-lowering therapy (ULT) is important for GA evaluations and observations. Inhibiting urate production and stimulating urate renal secretion are the two major mechanisms of action of ULT drugs. These uricosuric agents include benzbromarone, probenecid, and sulphinpyrazone, while xanthine oxidase inhibitors include allopurinol and febuxostat. After ULT, a patient’s serum uric acid level may be decreased. Previous studies reported that ULT therapy was associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease and mortality [6, 7]. However, no randomized controlled trials to date have demonstrated a direct link between hyperuricemia and cardiovascular disease. In chronic GA, aggressive control of hyperuricemia may reduce tophus formation [8]. Oral colchicine, NSAIDs, oral steroids, and intra-articular steroid injections are used to manage acute gouty arthritis attacks [9]. Quick increases or decreases in serum uric acid levels by dietary or lifestyle risk factors can induce acute gout flare [10]. In a previous clinical trial, a higher incidence of acute gout flare was observed during the initial marked decrease in serum urate levels [11]. The incidence of acute gout flare gradually decreases after adequate ULT medication. Initiating ULT may increase the risk for acute gout attack. Should early ULT be started during acute flares in GA patients or not until they resolve? Our study evaluated the effect of early probenecid administration in patients with acute gout flares.

In this open randomized controlled trial, the baseline characteristics were similar in the two groups. Significant decreasing levels of serum uric acid were found in the treatment group. No significant increase in pain severity or duration was observed in the treatment versus control group.

Treatment for GA includes the management of acute gout flares, prevention of recurrent arthritis, and control of hyperuricemia. The first-line medications for acute gout flares are oral colchicine, NSAIDs, and corticosteroids. After the control of acute gout flares is achieved, xanthine oxidase inhibitors and uricosuric agents can be used as ULT. Allopurinol can be used for the initial management of hyperuricemia in patients with chronic kidney disease [13]. The clinical response to allopurinol is similar to that of uricosuric agents; however, febuxostat induces a steeper effect on serum urate reduction than allopurinol [14]. Colchicine may inhibit monosodium urate-induced superoxide production by human neutrophils in vitro and effectively prevents acute gout flares [15, 16]. Probenecid may be used as monotherapy or in combination with allopurinol and still effectively lower hyperuricemia in GA [17].

Different ULT drugs including allopurinol, febuxostat, pegloticase, benzbromarone, and probenecid significantly lower serum urate levels compared with placebo [18]. Among these uricosuric agents, benzbromarone has greater efficacy at achieving serum urate normalization than probenecid [19]. Colchicine, low-dose NSAIDs, and low-dose steroids are recommended as ULT for the prophylaxis of acute gout attacks [20]. However, no strong clinical trial to date has proven the prophylactic effect of colchicine. Our study showed a rapid decrease in serum uric acid levels in the patient group treated with probenecid and colchicine compared with the group treated with only colchicine alone on day 8 (Table 2). After one week of medication, significantly improved pain was reported by the two groups. The mean VAS was not significantly different between the two groups (− 5.5 [IQR, − 8.0 to − 3.0] vs − 3.5 [IQR, − 5.9 to − 2.0]; P = 0.080).

Serum CRP levels were also adequately controlled in the two groups. Early intervention using ULT to induce the aggressive control of serum uric acid levels could have achieved early hyperuricemia control but no development of poor control of GA-related pain. The prophylactic effect of acute gout flare treatment may be due to the effect of colchicine and NSAIDs. Continued treatment with low-dose colchicine may inhibit monosodium urate-induced superoxide production by neutrophils in vivo [10]. After 2 weeks, a persistent decrease in serum CRP levels was observed in the two groups (Table 2). No significant intergroup difference in VAS score improvement was noted. According to a previous review, the early initiation of allopurinol does not increase pain severity or acute gout attack [21]. Therefore, the early intervention of hyperuricemia by probenecid using colchicine could prevent GA with acute flares.

Probenecid treats GA by inhibiting uric acid reuptake in the renal tubular transporter. Multiple effects on anionic transporters have been observed in probenecid. Therefore, probenecid has biological effects other than its major role as ULT. Probenecid has neuroprotective effects via inhibiting organic anion transporters in Huntington’s disease [22]. Its anti-hypertensive effects occur via α1-adrenergic receptor inhibition [23]. However, no significant anti-hypertensive effect was observed in our study. Probenecid can protect against transient global cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury by inhibiting the calpain–cathepsin pathway [24].

Based on a model involving lipotoxic liver injury, the abnormal activation of pannexin 1 can induce hepatic inflammation, while probenecid may inhibit pannexin 1 channels [25, 26]. An elevated uric acid level is one danger signal in alcoholic steatohepatitis [27]. During initial gout flares, aggressive control of hyperuricemia may decrease liver damage. In this clinical trial, the possible effect of liver protection was also observed. No significant elevation of liver function was found in the group that received a combination of probenecid and colchicine compared to the group that received monotherapy with colchicine. However, the sample size was small in this study, and this finding of liver protection requires further evaluation.

Overall, the mean pain severity was similar between groups throughout the 15 days of treatment (Fig. 3). However, there was a significant decrease in serum uric acid levels in the treatment group after 15 days of medication (Fig. 4). The average pain duration was also similar between the two groups (Fig. 5). Early and aggressive control hyperuricemia by probenecid with colchicine could not induce higher pain severity and duration in our study. In the other study, the chronic GA patients with a serum CRP level > 3 mg/dL who did not take prophylaxis were associated with gout flare recurrence during initial ULT therapy [28].

Low-dose colchicine (0.5 mg once or twice daily) or low-dose NSAIDs can serve as prophylactic treatment during ULT in GA [29, 30]. In our study, colchicine was administered with intermittent NSAIDs and no significant elevation in gout flares was found. Adequate control of hyperuricemia and reducing tophus size are associated with a lower probability of relapse during ULT [31]. Therefore, our study findings support the concept of early ULT in gout under adequate prophylactic treatment.

The limitations of this study were as follows: first, it enrolled a small number of participants; second, pain was evaluated using VAS scores without serum markers; third, the serum observation time was relatively short; and fourth, intermittent NSAID usage may have introduced bias due to pain control.

In summary, no significant increase was noted in acute gout flare duration or severity among patients with aggressive control of hyperuricemia using probenecid in our study. Our findings suggest the efficacy of early and aggressive lowering of serum uric acid levels using ULT with combination of prophylactic treatment.