Background
Methods
Purposes and features of the CVIC tool
Steps for conducting COVID-19 vaccine delivery cost projection using the CVIC tool [9]
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Target population definition, size and prioritization. High-risk groups are usually targeted and vaccinated first. A SAGE roadmap is available to assist countries in prioritizing the uses of COVID-19 vaccines [20].
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Delivery strategies, including delivery modalities and choice of vaccine types for specific target populations.
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Vaccine supply arrangements, including vaccine types, quantities, prices, and time availability.
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Country-specific unit costs, such as domestic transport and human resource costs.
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Country-specific costs for central-level activities, such as technical assistance and operational expenses.
Delivery modalities in the CVIC tool
Delivery modality | Examples | Linked target populations | Cost implication |
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1. Fixed sites with cold storage equipment | Hospitals and health facilities | ▪ Healthcare workers ▪ Essential workers and related groups ▪ Older adults (optional to include their household members) ▪ Immunocompromised persons ▪ Groups with comorbidities or health states that put them at increased risk of severe diseases (optional to include their household members) ▪ Disadvantaged socioeconomic groups at increased risk of severe disease or death ▪ Remaining groups | The least costly delivery modality due to: ▪ ability to store vaccines; ▪ no per diems and transport for healthcare workers; and ▪ fewer requirements for demand-generation activities |
2. Fixed sites without cold storage equipment | Small health centres, community halls and mass vaccination sites | ▪ Essential workers and related groups ▪ Older adults (optional to include their household members) ▪ Immunocompromised persons ▪ Groups with comorbidities or health states that put them at increased risk of severe diseases (optional to include their household members) ▪ Disadvantaged socioeconomic groups at increased risk of severe disease or death ▪ Remaining groups | More costly than modalities 1 and 3 due to: ▪ transport of vaccines in cold boxes and vaccine carriers; ▪ per diems and transport required for healthcare workers; and ▪ some demand-generation activities required for information of venues and times for vaccination |
3. Residential institutions | Elderly homes and refugee camps | ▪ Older adults and staff in residential institutions ▪ Disadvantaged socioeconomic groups at increased risk of severe disease or death and staff in residential institutions | More costly than modality 1 due to: ▪ transport of vaccines in cold boxes and vaccine carriers; and ▪ per diems and transport required for healthcare workers Less costly than modality 2 due to: ▪ fewer demand-generation activities for less mobile populations |
4. Outreach with overnight stays for healthcare workers and mobile vaccination | Outreach to hard-to-reach groups | Hard-to-reach populations | The most costly delivery modality due to: ▪ transport of vaccines in cold boxes and vaccine carriers; ▪ most per diems and transport required for healthcare workers for overnight stays; and ▪ most intensive demand-generation activities required for communicating benefits of vaccination |
Cost components in the CVIC tool
Cost category | Descriptions |
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1. Cross-cutting technical assistance for planning, coordination and delivery | Technical assistance for planning, coordination, costing, budgeting, financing, regulatory preparedness, identification of target population and prioritization, disease surveillance, service delivery, microplanning, vaccine procurement, cold chain requirements, planning for logistics and infrastructure |
2. Vaccine doses and related devices and supplies | Vaccine doses |
Vaccine-related supplies, such as syringes and safety boxes | |
3. Vaccinators (healthcare workers) | Technical assistance |
Healthcare worker training and supervision | |
Healthcare worker compensation, including supplementary wages, allowances for mobile teams and salaries for additional human resources for health | |
4. Vaccine delivery | Logistics and transportation related to delivery strategies, including outreach and mobile teams such as fuel for distributing vaccines, airfreight, handling costs, clearance and procurement fees |
Waste management | |
Personal protective equipment | |
Security costs for vaccine transportation and during vaccine administration | |
5. Cold chain | Freezers, refrigerators and cold boxes |
Operational expenses to distribute cold-chain equipment, storage and transportation, including staff, infrastructure, energy, tracking and monitoring stock through the vaccine logistics management and information system | |
6. Data management, monitoring and evaluation and oversight (for both electronic and paper-based data management and monitoring systems) | Technical assistance |
Operational expenditures | |
Evaluation including studies related to vaccine introduction, costing, coverage and effectiveness | |
Oversight and quality assurance | |
7. Vaccine safety surveillance and injection safety (including reporting of adverse events following immunization, investigation, causality assessment and responses) | Technical assistance |
Operational expenditures such as for home-based records, registers of vaccinated persons and tally sheets, vaccine logistics management information systems and health information | |
Systems used to gather, monitor, evaluate, analyse, produce and disseminate information across traditional and non-traditional providers | |
Compensation schemes for adverse events following immunization | |
8. Demand generation and communications (risk communication and community engagement) | Technical assistance |
Operational expenditures to support vaccine uptake and acceptance, including social listening, data collection and analysis, use of local behavioural and social data, social mobilization, crisis communications, operating social listening systems, rumour management, assessing behavioural data, risk communication and community engagement, mass media, and printing posters and banners | |
9. Protecting essential health services and health systems strengthening | Co-delivered activities and interventions that are not specific to COVID-19 vaccination, but are intended to strengthen health systems or protect essential health services, or both |
A case study for Lao PDR
Data sources
Data | Assumption | Source |
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Total population | 2021: 7,337,714 2022: 7,442,794 2023: 7,545,792 | Bureau of Statistics, Lao PDR |
Number of distribution points | Provincial/central levels: 26 District levels: 135 | EPI, Lao PDR |
Number of service points | Fixed sites with cold storage equipment: 198 Campaign sites: 1645 for adults and 8813 for children Outreach sites: 5081 | EPI, Lao PDR |
Vaccine products | Ad26.COV2.S (recombinant), VAXZEVRIA, COMIRNATY, Vero Cell | EPI, Lao PDR |
Expected willingness to receive COVID-19 vaccines | 100% | Assumption with agreement with EPI, Lao PDR |
Vaccine wastage rate | 5% | Assumption with agreement with EPI, Lao PDR |
Maximum number of redeployable human resources for health | 6807 (including medical students and private sector) | EPI, Lao PDR |
Robustness adjustment for human resources for healtha | 2.5 min | CVIC default |
Per diem for healthcare workers for outreach (daily rate) | US$2.56 | Document on MoH regulation |
Cost of vaccinator training and supervision | US$80,055 | Programme managers of MoH, Lao PDR |
Cost of personal protective equipment per healthcare worker per day | US$3.66 | Programme managers of MoH, Lao PDR |
Transportation cost for healthcare workers | US$2.56 per motorcycle per day | Document on MoH regulation, Lao PDR |
Cost per litre for additional ultra-cold storage | US$8.6 | Programme managers of MoH, Lao PDR |
Costs per trip for cold-chain logistics and domestic transport from central to regional | Refrigerated: US$100 Ultra-cold: US$100 | CVIC default based on global vaccine costing derived from global empirical studies and confirmed by experts in Lao PDR |
Costs per trip for cold-chain logistics and domestic transport from regional to districts and fixed sites | Refrigerated: US$50 Ultra-cold: US$50 | CVIC default based on global vaccine costing derived from global empirical studies and confirmed by experts in Lao PDR |
Cost per fixed site or team for IT infrastructure per fixed site or team for local data management and monitoring | US$1250 | Expert opinions from the consultation in Lao PDR |
Cost per site per day for stationery and data charges for telecommunications per site per day | US$3.41 | Expert opinions from the consultation in Lao PDR |
Cost per site for materials and media costs per site per local demand generation and communications | US$38.29 | Expert opinions from the consultation in Lao PDR |
Costing scenarios, vaccine delivery strategies and other assumptions
Scenario | Percentage of total population vaccinated with a primary series or booster of COVID-19 vaccine (%) | ||||||||
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2021–2023 | H1 2021 | H2 2021 | H1 2022 | H2 2022 | H1 2023 | H2 2023 | |||
S1 | Primary series for the priority populationa and all adults | Total | 63 | 8 | 42 | 10 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
S2 | Primary series for the priority populationa, all adults and teenagers | Additional to S1 | 14 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 5 | 2 | 0 |
Total | 77 | 8 | 44 | 15 | 8 | 2 | 0 | ||
S3 | Primary series for the priority populationa, all adults, teenagers and children aged 5–11 years | Additional to S2 | 17 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 7 | 2 | 0 |
Total | 94 | 8 | 44 | 23 | 15 | 4 | 0 | ||
S4a | Primary series and one initial booster for the priority populationa, all adults and teenagers | Additional to S2 | 77 | 0 | 8 | 44 | 15 | 8 | 2 |
Total | 154 | 8 | 52 | 59 | 23 | 10 | 2 | ||
S4b | Primary series and two booster doses for the priority populationa, all adults and teenagers | Additional to S4a | 75 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 44 | 23 |
Total | 229 | 8 | 52 | 59 | 31 | 54 | 25 | ||
S5a | Primary series and one initial booster for the priority populationa, all adults, teenagers and children | Initial booster for children | 17 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 7 | 2 |
Total | 188 | 8 | 52 | 67 | 38 | 19 | 4 | ||
S5b | Primary series and two booster doses for the priority populationa, all adults, teenagers and children | Second boost for children | 15 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 7 |
Total | 278 | 8 | 52 | 67 | 46 | 71 | 34 |
Results
Scenario 1 | Scenario 2 | Scenario 3 | Scenario 4a | Scenario 4b | Scenario 5a | Scenario 5b | |
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Total number of vaccine doses administered | 7,997,333 | 9,736,171 | 12,036,265 | 15,091,435 | 20,316,692 | 18,560,415 | 24,832,693 |
Total number of vaccine courses administered | 4,374,387 | 5,350,000 | 6,527,972 | 10,705,264 | 15,930,521 | 13,052,122 | 19,324,400 |
Total annualized cost (million dollars)ab | 4.91 | 6.35 | 7.96 | 9.16 | 10.57 | 11.6 | 13.25 |
Total non-annualized cost (million dollars)a | 6.44 | 7.88 | 9.5 | 10.69 | 12.11 | 13.14 | 14.8 |
Cost per dose (non-annualized)a | 0.81 | 0.81 | 0.79 | 0.71 | 0.6 | 0.71 | 0.6 |
Cost per primary course (non-annualized)a | 1.47 | 1.47 | 1.46 | 1 | 0.76 | 1.01 | 0.77 |