Background
Methods
Literature review
Study selection and data extraction
Quality assessment
Results
Source | Extract | Animal | Dose/day | Duration of study | Treatment | Effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agaricus
(A. blazei) subrufescens
| α-1,6 and α-1,4 glucans | 8-week ♀ C3H/He mice (5/group) | 100 mg/kg IG every 3 days | 1 month | Healthy animals | ↑ #s splenic T lymphocytes (Thy1.2, CD4+ and CD8+) | [24] |
Aqueous | 7-9-week ♂ Balb/cByJ mice (40/group) | 1 ml 0.45N, 0.6N, or 3N aqueous extract | 2 months | All doses ↑ serum IgG levels, CD3+ T cell populations and PML phagocytic activity | [22] | ||
7-9-week male Balb/cByJ mice (40/group) | 1 ml 0.45N, 0.6N, or 3N aqueous extract | 10 weeks | IP injection of OVA at 4 weeks | 0.6N and 3N ↑ levels of OVA-specific serum IgG 28 days post-immunization; all doses ↑ delayed-type hypersensitivity and TNF-α secreted from splenocytes at 10 weeks; 0.6N ↑ splenocyte proliferation at 10 weeks | |||
5-6 -week ♀ BALB/cHsdOla mice (8/group × 2) | One 200 μl extract day 1, orogastric intubation | 1 week | Injected IP fecal solution day 2 | ↓ CFU in blood of mice with severe peritonitis & improved overall survival rate in all peritonitis groups | [46] | ||
6-week BALB/c nu/nu mice (7/group) | 2.5 mg extract days 20-41, drinking water | 41 days | Injected SC Sp-2 myeloma cells day 1 | ↓ tumor size & weight after 21 days treatment | [65] | ||
Aqueous, acid treated | 6-week ♀ C57BL/6 mice (10/group) | 20, 100 or 500 μg/ml, drinking water | 9 days | Injected IP human ovarian cancer cells day 1 | 500 μg/ml ↓ tumor weight | [66] | |
20, 100 or 500 μg/ml, drinking water | 3 weeks | Injected IV murine lung cancer (3LL) cells | 100 & 500 μg/ml ↓ #s metastatic tumors | ||||
Aqueous, with 200 ng/day β-glucan | 6-week ♀ BALB/c mice (10/group) | 200 ng days 5-21 | 3 weeks | Injected Meth A tumor cells day 1 | ↓ tumor size & weight | [23] | |
2 weeks | Injected Meth A tumor cells | ↑ cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity & spleen cell IFN-α protein | |||||
300 mg | 5 days | Healthy animals | ↑ splenic NK cell activity | ||||
Avena spp. | β-glucans (particulate) | 6-7 -week ♀ C57BL/6 mice (7/group) | 3 mg every 48 h, days 1-3 | 1 month | Oral E. vermiformis oocytes day 10 | ↓ E. vermiformis fecal oocyte #s; increased intestinal anti-merozoite IgA; ↓ # of IL-4-secreting MLN cells | [42] |
3 mg on alternating days, days 1-10 | 22 days | Injected IP Eimeria vermiformis day 10 | ↓ E. vermiformis fecal oocyte #s; ↑ anti-merozoite intestinal IgA | [43] | |||
β-glucans (soluble) | 4-week ♂ CD-1 mice (24/group) | 0.6 mg/ml 68% β-glucan, drinking water | 1 month | Resting or exercise-stressed (days 8-10) animals administered HSV-1 IN day 10 | ↓ morbidity in resting and exercise-stressed animals; ↓ mortality in exercise-stressed animals; pre-infection, ↑ Mø anti-viral resistance in resting and exercise-stressed animals | [38] | |
~3.5 mg days 1-10, drinking water | Resting or exercise-stressed (days 5-10) animals administered HSV-1 IN day 10 | Pre-infection, ↑ Mø antiviral resistance in resting animals | [41] | ||||
4-week ♂ CD-1 mice (10/group) | 0.6 mg/ml 68% β-glucan, drinking water | 10 days | Resting animals or animals exposed to a bout of fatiguing exercise days 8-10 or moderate exercise days 5-10, injected IP with thioglycollate on day 10 | ↑ neutrophil mobilization in resting & moderately exercised animals; ↑ neutrophil respiratory burst activity in resting and fatiguing exercised animals | [37] | ||
4-week ♂ CD-1 mice (19-30/group) | 0.8 mg/ml 50% β-glucan, days 1-10, drinking water | 1 month | Resting or exercise-stressed (days 8-10) animals administered IN clodronate-filled liposomes to deplete Mø days 8 & 14 & infected IN with HSV-1 day 10 | ↓ morbidity, mortality, symptom severity in exercise-stressed animals, without Mø depletion | [40] | ||
4-week ♂ CD-1 mice (20/group) | Resting or exercise-stressed (days 8-10) animals administered HSV-1 IN day 10 | ↓ morbidity in exercise-stressed & resting animals; ↓ mortality in exercise-stressed animals | [39] | ||||
Ganoderma lucidum
| Aqueous | 7-week ♂ CD-1 mice (26/group) | 5% of diet | 5 months | Injected IM DMH once a week, weeks 1-10 | ↓ aberrant crypt foci per colon, tumor size, cell proliferation, nuclear staining of β-catenin | [69] |
4-8-week BALB/c mice (10/group) | 50, 100 or 200 mg/kg, oral | 10 days | Injected SD Sarcoma 180 cells | ↓ of tumor weight was dose dependent: 27.7, 55.8, 66.7%, respectively | [67] | ||
Ganoderma lucidum (mycelia) | Aqueous | 7-week ♂ F344/Du Crj rats (16/group) | 1.25% or 2.5% of diet | 6 months | Injected SC AOM once a week, weeks2-5 | Both doses ↓ colonic adenocarcinoma incidence; 2.5% ↓ total tumor incidence; both doses ↓ nuclear staining of β-catenin and cell proliferation | [68] |
Ganoderma tsugae
| Aqueous | 8-week ♀ BALB/cByJNarl mice (14/group) | 0.2-0.4% of diet (young fungi); 0.33 or 0.66% of diet (mature fungi) | 5 weeks | Injected IP OVA days 7, 14, 21; aerosolized OVA twice during week 4 | In splenocytes, both doses of both extracts ↑ IL-2 and IL-2/IL-4 ratios, 0.2% young extract and 0.66% mature extract ↓ IL-4; in Mø, 0.66% mature extract ↑ IL-1β, both doses of both extracts ↑ IL-6 | [53] |
Grifola frondosa
| D fraction | Mice: 1) ICR, 2) C3H/HeN, 3) CDF1 (10/group) | 1.5 mg every other day, beginning day 2 | 13 days | Implanted SC: 1) Sarcoma-180, 2) MM-46 carcinoma, or 3) IMC carcinoma cells | ↓ tumor weight & tumor growth rate: 1) 58%, 2) 64%, and 3) 75%, respectively | [71] |
5-week ♂ BALB/c mice (10/group) | 2 mg, days 15-30 | 45 days | Injected in the back with 3-MCA, day 1 | ↓ (62.5%) # of animals with tumors; ↑ H202 production by plasma Mø; ↑ cytotoxic T cell activity | [72] | ||
Hordeum vulgare
| β-1,3;1,4 or β-1,3;1,6-D-glucans | Athymic nu/nu mice (4-12/group) | 40 or 400 μg IG for 4 weeks | 31 weeks | Mice with human xenografts (SKMel28 melanoma, A431 epidermoid carcinoma, BT474 breast carcinoma, Daudi lymphoma, or LAN-1 neuroblastoma) ± mAb (R24, 528, Herceptin, Rituximab, or 3F8, respectively) therapy twice weekly | 400 μg + mAb ↓ tumor growth & ↑ survival; higher MW ↓ tumor growth rate for both doses | [75] |
β-1,3;1,4-D-glucans | Athymic BALB/c mice | 4, 40, or 400 μg for 3-4 weeks | 1 month | Mice with neuroblastoma (NMB7, LAN-1, or SK-N-ER) xenografts, ± 3F8 mAb therapy twice weekly | 40 and 400 μg doses + mAB ↓ tumor growth; 400 μg dose ↑ survival. Serum NK cells required for effects on tumor size | [76] | |
C57BL/6 WT and CR3-deficient mice (10/group) | 0.4 mg for 3 weeks | 100 days | Injected SC RMA-S-MUC1 lymphoma cells day 1 ± IV 14.G2a or anti-MUC1 mAb every 3rd day | ±mAB ↓ tumor diameter; ↑ survival | [73] | ||
β-glucans | ♀ Fox Chase ICR immune-deficient (SCID) mice (9/group) | 400 μg days 1-29 | 50 days | Mice with human (Daudi, EBV-BLCL, Hs445, or RPMI6666) lymphoma xenografts, ± Rituximab mAb therapy twice weekly | +mAB ↓ tumor growth and ↑ survival | [74] | |
Laminaria digitata
| Laminarin | ♂ ICR/HSD mice (3/group) | 1 mg | 1 day | Healthy animals | ↑ Mø expression of Dectin-1 in GALT cells; ↑ TLR2 expression in Peyer's patch dendritic cells | [29] |
♂ Wistar rats (7/group) | 5% of diet days 1-4, 10% of diet days 5-25 | 26 days | Injected IP E. coli LPS day 25 | ↓ liver ALT, AST, and LDH enzyme levels; ↑ ED2-positive cells, .↓ peroxidase-positive cells in liver; ↓ serum monocytes, TNF-α, PGE2, NO2
| [44] | ||
Lentinula edodes
| SME | 6-week nude mice | 0.1 ml water with10% SME/10 g body weight days 1-19, 33-50 | 50 days | Injected SC prostate cancer (PC-3) cells day 1 | ↓ tumor size | [80] |
β-glucans | ♀ 3- and 8-week BALB/c mice (15/group) | 50, 100 or 250 μg | 1-2 weeks | Healthy animals | 250 μg dose ↑ spleen cell IL-2 secretion | [27] | |
♀ 3- and 8-week BALB/c mice (15/group) | 50, 100 or 250 μg | 1-2 weeks | Injected murine mammary carcinoma (Ptas64) cells into mammary fat pads 2 weeks before treatment | ↓ tumor weight | |||
Lentinan | 6-week ♂ Wistar-Imamichi specific-pathogen free rats (10/group) | 1 mg twice weekly | 1-2 months | Healthy animals | ↑ T cell #s, helper-cell #s & helper/suppressor ratio, ↓ suppressor cell level at 4, but not 8 weeks | [26] | |
5-6-week ♂ pre-leukemic AKR mice (10/group) | 3 mg, days 1-7 | 3 weeks | Injected SC K36 murine lymphoma cells day 7 | ↓ tumor weight; ↑ tumor inhibition rate (94%) | [82] | ||
5-6-week athymic mice (10/group) | 5 weeks | Injected SC colon cancer (LoVo and SW48, SW480 and SW620, or SW403 and SW1116) cells day 7 | ↓ tumor weight, ↑ tumor inhibition rate (>90%) | ||||
♂ AKR mice | 3 mg | 1 day | Pre-leukemic mice | ↑ serum IFN-α and TNF-α, peak at 4 h and then back to normal at 24 h; ↑ IL-2 and IL-1α, peak at 2 h and back to normal at 24 h; ↑ CD3+ T, CD4+ T, CD8+ T, B lymphocytes | [81] | ||
Phellinus linteus
| Aqueous, alcohol-precipitated | 6-7-week C57BL/6 mice (10-50/group) | 200 mg/kg in drinking water | 1 month | Healthy animals | ↑ production and secretion of IFN-γ by con A stimulated T cells | [32] |
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
| Scleroglucan | ♂ ICR/HSD mice (3/group) | 1 mg one day before challenge (day 1) | 6 days | IV Staphylococcus aureus or Candida albicans day 2 | ↑ long-term survival | [29] |
β-1,3;1,6 glucans (particulate) | 3 and 8-week ♀ BALB/c mice (15/group) | 50, 100 or 250 μg | 1-2 weeks | Injected murine mammary carcinoma (Ptas64) cells into mammary fat pads 2 weeks before treatment | ↓ tumor weight | [27] | |
β-1,3-glucan | Healthy animals | All 3 doses ↑ phagocytic activity of blood monocytes & neutrophils & ↑ spleen cell IL-2 secretion | |||||
WT or CCD11b-/- C57BL/6 mice (2/group) | 0.4 mg for 3 weeks | 100 days | Injected SC RMA-S-MUC1 lymphoma cells ± 14.G2a or anti-MUC1 mAb IV injection every 3rd day | ↓ tumor diameter when included with mAb; ↑ survival with and without mAb | [73] | ||
C57BL/6mice (4/group) | 25 mg | 1 week | Healthy animals | ↑ # intestinal IELs; ↑ # TCRαβ+, TCR γδ+, CD8+, CD4+, CD8αα+, CD8αβ+ T cells in IELs; ↑ IFN-γ mRNA expression in IELs and spleen | [28] | ||
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
| SSG | 6-8-week specific pathogen-free ♂ CDF1 mice (3/group) | 40 or 80 mg/kg days 1-10 | 2 weeks | Healthy animals | 10 mg dose ↑ acid phosphatase activity of peritoneal Mø (day 14) | [30] |
40, 80 or 160 mg/kg days 2-6 | 35 days | Implanted SC Metha A fibrosarcoma cells day 1 | 80 mg dose ↓ tumor weight | ||||
6-8-week specific pathogen-free ♂ CDF1 mice (10/group) | 40, 80 or 160 mg/kg days 2-11 | Injected ID IMC carcinoma cells day 1 | |||||
6-8-week specific-pathogen free ♂ mice of BDF1 and C57BL/6 mice (7/group) | 0.5, 1, 2, or 4 mg days 1-10 | 2-3 weeks | Injected IV Lewis lung carcinoma (3LL) cells | 2 mg ↓ # of 3LL surface lung nodules at 2 weeks | [83] | ||
Sclerotium rofsii
| Glucan phosphate | ♂ ICR/HSD mice (3/group) | 1 mg | 1 day | Healthy animals | ↑ systemic IL-6; ↑ Mø expression of Dectin-1 in GALT cells; ↑ TLR2 expression in dendritic cells from Peyer's patches | [29] |
Trametes (Coriolus) versicolor
| PSP | 6-8-week ♂ BALB/c mice (10/group) | 35 μg days 5-29 in drinking water | 29 days | Implanted SC Sarcoma-180 cells day 1 | ↓ tumor growth & vascular density | [94] |
Extract | Source | Animal | Oral dose/day | Duration | Treatment | Significant effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fucoidans |
Cladosiphon okamuranus Tokida
| 8-week ♀ BALB/c mice, 10/group | 0.05% w/w of diet | 56 days | DSS-induced UC | ↓ disease activity index and myeloperoxidase activity; ↓ # of B220-positive colonic B cells; ↓ colonic MLN IFN-γ and IL-6 and ↑ IL-10 and TGF-β; ↓ colonic IgG; ↓ colonic epithelial cell IL-6, TNF-α, and TLR4 mRNA expression | [49] |
Undaria pinnatifida
| 5-week ♀ BALB/c mice (10-12/group) | 5 mg, days 1-14 or 7-14 | 2 weeks | Injected HSV into cornea day 7 | ↓ facial herpetic lesions; ↑ survival, particularly in pre-treated animals | [45] | |
10 mg | 1 week | Administered 5-fluorouracil | ↑ plasma NK cell activity | ||||
Injected SC HSV | ↑ cytotoxic splenic T lymphocyte activity | ||||||
0.1 or 0.5 mg | 3 weeks | Injected IP HSV | Both doses ↑ serum neutralizing Ab titers, weeks 2 and 3 | ||||
6-week ♂ ddY mice (5/group) | 50, 100, 200 400 or 500 mg/kg days 1-28 | 3 weeks | Injected with Ehrlich carcinoma in back day 14 | 200-500 mg/kg ↓ tumor growth | [116] | ||
6-week ♂ BALB/c mice (8/group) | 40 mg/kg alternating days 7-19 | 19 days | Injected IP Meth A fibrosarcoma day 1 | ↓ tumor growth | |||
Furanose (COLD-FX®) |
Panax quinquefolium
| Weanling ♂ SD rats (10/group) | 450 or 900 mg/kg in food | 1 week | Healthy animals | Both doses ↑ spleen Il-2 and IFN-γ production following ConA or LPS stimulation; ↓ proportion of total MLN and Peyer's patch CD3+ cells & activated T cells; high dose ↑ spleen cell IL-1β production following 48 h ConA stimulation. | [33] |
Galacto-mannan (partially hydrolyzed guar gum) |
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus
| 10-week ♀ BALB/c mice, 11-15/group | 5% of diet | 3 weeks | DSS-induced UC at beginning of week 3 | ↓ disease activity index scores, ↓ colonic mucosal myeloperoxidase activity & lipid peroxidation; ↓ colonic TNF-α protein levels & mRNA expression up regulated by DSS exposure | [50] |
Galacto-mannans (guar gum) | 8-month- SD rats, 5/group | 5% of diet | 3 weeks | Older animals | ↓ serum IgG; ↑ MLN lymphocyte IgA, IgM and IgG production | [36] | |
Glucomannan (KS-2) |
Lentinula edodes
| DD1 mice (10-20/group) | 140 mg/kg days 2-13 | 50 days | Injected IP Ehrlich ascites tumor cells day 1 | ↑ survival | [84] |
0.1, 1, 10, or 100 mg/kg dose days 2-13 | 100 days | Injected Sarcoma-180 tumor cells day 1 | 1, 10, and 100 mg/kg doses ↑ survival | ||||
Heteroglycan (ATOM) |
A. subrufescens
| Mice (10/group): 1) 5-week ♂ Swiss/NIH; 6 week- ♀ DS mice; 3) 8-week ♀ BALB/c nude; 4) 5-week C3H/HcN | 100 or 300 mg/kg days 2-11 | 8 weeks | Implanted SC 1) Sarcoma-180, 2) Shionogi carcinoma 42, 3) Meth A fibrosarcoma, or 4) Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells | Both doses ↓ Sarcoma-180 tumor size at 4 weeks & ↑ survival; 300 mg/kg ↑ peritoneal macrophage and C3-positive cells; 300 mg/kg ↓ Shionogi and Meth A tumor sizes at 4 weeks. Both doses ↑ survival of Ehrlich ascites mice | [93] |
Heteroglycan (LBP3p) |
Lycium barbarum
| ♂ Kunming mice (10/group) | 5, 10 or 20 mg/kg | 10 days | Injected SC Sarcoma-180 cells | 5 & 10 mg/kg ↑ thymus index; all doses ↓ weight, ↓ lipid peroxidation in serum, liver and spleen & ↑ spleen lymphocyte proliferation, cytotoxic T cell activity, IL-2 mRNA | [91] |
Heteroglycan (PNPS-1) |
Pholiota nameko
| SD rats (5/group) | 100, 200 or 400 mg/kg days 1-8 | 8 days | Implanted SC cotton pellets in scapular region day 1 | ↓ granuloma growth positively correlated with dose: 11%, 18% and 44%, respectively | [55] |
Heteroglycan (PG101) |
Lentinus lepideus
| 8-10-week ♀ BALB/c mice (3/group) | 10 mg | 24 days | 6 Gy gamma irradiation | ↑ colony forming cells, granulocyte CFUs/Mø, erythroid burst-forming units, and myeloid progenitor cells in bone marrow; induced proliferation of granulocyte progenitor cells in bone marrow; ↑ serum levels of GM-CSF, IL-6, IL-1β | [92] |
Mixed poly-saccharides (Ambrotose® or Advanced Ambrotose® powders) |
Aloe barbadensis, Larix spp, and other plant poly-saccharides | ♂ SD rats (10/group) | 37.7 or 377 mg/kg Ambrotose® powder or 57.4 or 574 mg/kg Advanced Ambrotose® powder | 2 weeks | 5% DSS in drinking water beginning day 6 | 574 mg/kg Advanced Ambrotose powder ↓ DAI scores; 377 mg/kg Ambrotose complex & both doses Advanced Ambrotose powder ↑ colon length and ↓ blood monocyte count | [52] |
Pectin |
Pyrus pyrifolia
| 6-8-week ♂ BALB/c mice (11/group) | 100 μg days 1-7 | 22 days | Injected IP OVA day 7, provoked with OVA aerosol day 21 | bronchial fluid:↓ IFN-γ & ↑ IL-5; splenic cells: ↑ IFN-γ, ↓ IL-5; normalized pulmonary histopathological changes; ↓ serum IgE | [54] |
Pectins (bupleurum 2IIc) |
Bupleurum falcatum
| 6-8-week ♀ specific-pathogen-free C3H/HeJ mice | 250 mg/kg | 1 week | Healthy animals | ↑ spleen cell proliferation | [35] |
Pectins (highly methoxylated) |
Malus spp. | 8-month- SD rats (5/group) | 5% of diet vs. cellulose control | 3 weeks | Older animals | ↑ MLN lymphocyte IgA & IgG | [36] |
Pectins | Citrus spp. | 5-week ♀ F344 rats (30/group) | 15% of diet | 34 weeks | Injected SC AOM once a week, weeks 4-14 | ↓ colon tumor incidence | [86] |
Malus spp. | 5-week ♀ BALB/c mice (6/group) | 5% of diet | 2 weeks | Healthy animals | ↑ fecal IgA and MLN CD4+/CD8+ T lymphocyte ratio & IL-2 & IFN-γ secretion by ConA-stimulated MLN lymphocytes | [51] | |
5-week ♀ BALB/c mice (6/group) | 5% of diet days 5-19 vs. cellulose control | 19 days | DSS-induced UC days 1-5 | Significantly increased MLN lymphocytes IgA, and significantly decreased IgE; significantly decreased ConA-stimulated IL-4 and IL-10 | |||
4-week ♂ Donryu rats (20-21/group) | 20% of diet | 32 weeks | Injected SC AOM once a week, weeks 2-12 | ↓ colon tumor incidence | [85] | ||
4-week ♂ Donryu rats (19-20/group) | 10 or 20% of diet | 32 weeks | Injected SC AOM once a week, weeks 2-12 | Both doses ↓ colon tumor incidence; 20% ↓ tumor occupied area & ↓ portal blood and distal colon PGE2
| [90] | ||
Pectins (modified) | Citrus spp. | 2-4-month BALB/c mice (9-10/group) | 0.8 or 1.6 mg/ml drinking water, days 8-20 | 20 days | Injected SC with 2 × 2 mm section of human colon-25 tumor on day 1 | Both doses ↓ tumor size | [87] |
NCR nu/nu mice (10/group) | 1% (w/v) drinking water | 16 weeks | Orthotopically injected human breast carcinoma cells (MDA-MB-435) into mammary fat pad on day 7 | ↓ tumor growth rate & volume at 7 weeks, lung metastases at 15 weeks, # of blood vessels/tumor at 33 days post-injection | [89] | ||
NCR nu/nu mice (10/group) | 1% (w/v) drinking water | 7 weeks | Injected human colon carcinoma cells (LSLiL6) into cecum on day 7 | ↓ tumor weights and metastases to the lymph nodes and liver | |||
SD rats (7-8/group) | 0.01%, 0.1% or 1.0% wt/vol of drinking water, days 4-30 | 1 month | Injected SC MAT-LyLu rat prostate cancer cells | 0.1% and 1.0% ↓ lung metastases; 1.0% ↓ lymph node disease incidence | [88] |
Source | Animal | Oral dose/day | Duration | Treatment | Significant effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agaricus (A. blazei) subrufescens (fruit bodies) | 6-week ♂ C57BL/6, C3H/HeJ and BALB/c mice (3/group) | 16, 32 or 64 mg | 2 weeks | Healthy animals | 32 and 64 mg ↑ liver mononuclear cell cytotoxicity | [25] |
Grifola frondosa
| 6-week ♀ ICR mice (10-15/group) | 5% of diet | 36 weeks | Oral N-butyl-N'-butanolnitrosamine daily for first 8 weeks | ↓ #s of animals with bladder tumors; ↓ tumor weight; ↑ peritoneal Mø chemotactic activity, splenic lymphocyte blastogenic response & cytotoxic activity | [70] |
Laminaria angustata
| Weanling SD rats (58/group) | 5% of diet | 26 weeks | IG DMBA, beginning of week 5 | ↑ time to tumor development and ↓ # of adenocarcinomas in adenocarcinoma-bearing animals | [77] |
Lentinula (Lentinus) edodes
| 6-week ♀ ICR mice (10-17/group) | 5% of diet | 36 weeks | Oral BBN daily for first 8 weeks | ↓ # of animals with bladder tumors; ↓ tumor weight; ↑ Mø chemotactic activity, splenic lymphocyte blastogenic response, cytotoxic activity | [70] |
7-8 -week ♂ Swiss mice (10/group) | 1%, 5% or 10% of diet of 4 different lineages days 1-15 | 16 days | Injected IP N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea day 15 | All 3 doses of one lineage and the 5% dose of two other lineages ↓ #s of micronucleated bone marrow polychromatic erythrocytes | [79] | |
Lentinula edodes (fruit bodies) | 5-week ♀ ICR mice (14/group × 2) | 10%, 20% or 30% of diet | 25 days | Injected IP Sarcoma-180 ascites | All 3 doses ↓ Sarcoma-180 tumor weight | [78] |
Mice: 1) CDF1; 2) C3H; 3) BALB/c; 4,5) C57BL/6N (9/group × 3) | 20% of diet | 25 days | Injected SC 1) IMC carcinoma, 2) MM-46 carcinoma, 3) Meth-A fibrosarcoma, 4) B-16 melanoma, or 5) Lewis lung carcinoma cells | ↓ growth of MM-46, B-16, Lewis lung, and IMC tumors; ↑ lifespan in Lewis lung and MM-46 animals | ||
ICR mice (14/group × 2) | 20% of diet days 1-7, days 7-31 or days 14-31 | 31 days | Injected IP Sarcoma-180 ascites | ↓ tumor weight & growth when fed days 7-31 or 14-31 | ||
Mice: 1) CDF1; 2) C3 H (5/group × 4) | 20% of diet | 7-12 days | Injected SC: 1) IMC carcinoma or 2) MM-46 carcinoma cells | ↑ spreading rate of activated Mø ↑ phagocytic activity | ||
Phellinus linteus
| 4-week ♂ ICR mice (10/group) | 2 mg | 1 month | Healthy animals | ↓ serum & splenocyte IgE production; ↑ proportion of splenic CD4+ T cells & splenocyte IFN-γ production | [31] |
Pleurotus ostreatus
| 6-week ♀ ICR mice (10-20/group) | 5% of diet | 36 weeks | Oral BBN daily for first 8 weeks | ↓ #s of animals with bladder tumors; ↓ tumor weight; ↑ plasma Mø chemotactic activity, splenic lymphocyte blastogenic response, cytotoxic activity | [70] |
Extract | Source | Study design | Population | N (experimental/control) | Dose/day | Dura-tion | Significant effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arabino-galactans |
Larix occidentalis
| Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Healthy adults | 8/15 | 4 g | 6 weeks | ↑ % CD8+ lymphocytes & blood lymphocyte proliferation | [18] |
Arabino-galactans (ResistAid™) | Healthy adults given pneumococcal vaccinations day 30 | 21/24 | 4.5 g | 72 days | ↑ plasma IgG subtypes | [19] | ||
Fucoidans |
Undaria pinnatifida sporophylls | Randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled | Healthy adults | 25 (75% fucoidan, 6 (10% fucoidan)/6 | 3 g | 12 days | 75% fucoidan: ↓ #s blood leukocytes, lymphocytes' ↑ plasma stromal derived factor-1, IFN-γ, CD34+ cells; ↑ % CXCR4-expressing CD34+ cells | [21] |
Furanose extract (Cold-FX®) |
Panax quinque-folium
| Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Healthy older adults given influenza immunization at the end of week 4 | 22/21 | 400 mg | 4 months | During weeks 9-16, ↓ incidence of acute respiratory illness, symptom duration | [20] |
Glucans |
Agaricus subru-fescens
| Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Cervical, ovarian or endometrial cancer patients receiving 3 chemotherapy cycles | 39/61 | 5.4 g (estimated) | 6 weeks | ↑ NK cell activity, ↓ chemotherapy side effects | [64] |
Glucans (β-1,3;1,6) | Not identified | Placebo-controlled | Recurrent aphthous stomatitis patients | 31/42 | 20 mg | 20 days | ↑ PBL lymphocyte proliferation,↓ Ulcer Severity Scores | [48] |
Glucans (β-1,3;1-6) |
S. cerevisiae
| Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Adults with seasonal allergic rhinitis | 12/12 | 20 mg | 12 weeks | 30 minutes after nasal allergen provocation test, nasal lavage fluid: ↓ IL-4, IL-5, % eosinophils, ↑ IL-12 | [47] |
Glucans (PSK) |
Trametes versicolor
| Randomized, controlled | Patients with curatively resected colorectal cancer receiving chemotherapy | 221/227 | 200 mg | 3-5 years | ↑ disease-free survival and overall survival | [56] |
Controlled | Post-surgical colon cancer patients receiving chemotherapy | 123/121 | 3 g for 4 weeks, alternating with 10 4-week courses of chemo-therapy | 7 years | ↑ survival from cancer deaths; no difference in disease-free or overall survival | [57] | ||
Post-surgical colorectal cancer patients receiving chemotherapy | 137/68 | 3 g daily | 2 years | ↑survival in stage III patients; ↓ recurrence in stage II & III patients | [58] | |||
Post-surgical gastric cancer patients receiving chemotherapy | 124/129 | 3 g for 4 weeks, alternating with 10 4-week courses of chemo-therapy | 5-7 years | ↑ 5-year disease-free survival rate, overall 5-year survival | [59] | |||
Pre-surgical gastric or colorectal cancer patients | 16 daily; 17 every other day/13 | 3 g daily or on alternate days before surgery | <14 days or 14-36 days | ≥14 day treatment: ↑ peripheral blood NK cell activity, PBL cytotoxicity, proportion of PBL helper cells; ↓ proportion of PBL inducer cells; <14 day treatment: ↑ PBL response to PSK and Con A, proportion of regional node lymphocyte suppressor cells | [62] | |||
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Post-surgical stage III-IV colorectal cancer patients | 56/55 | 3 g for 2 months, 2 g for 22 months, 1 g thereafter | 8-10 years | ↑ remission & survival rates | [61] | ||
Controlled | Post-surgical stage III gastric cancer patients receiving chemotherapy | 32/21 | 3 g | 1 year | ↑ survival time | [60] | ||
Glucans (PSP) |
Trametes versicolor
| Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Conventionally-treated stage III-IV non-small cell lung cancer patients | 34/34 | 3.06 g | 1 month | ↑ blood IgG & IgM, total leukocyte and neutrophil counts, % body fat; ↓ patient withdrawal due to disease progression | [63] |
Source | Category | Features | MW | Monosaccharide composition | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agaricus subrufescens (A. blazei) | Extract | β-1,6-D-glucan | 10,000 | NA | [66] |
Agaricus subrufescens (fruit body) | Extract | α-1,6- and α-1,4 glucans with β-1,6-glucopyranosyl backbone (629.2 mcg/mg polysaccharides, 43.5 mcg/mg protein) | 170,000 | glucose | [24] |
α-1,4 glucans & β-1,6 glucans with β-1,3 side branches; α-1,6 glucans; β-1,6; 1-3 glucans, β-1,4 glucans; β-1,3 glucans; β-1,6; α-1,3 glucans; riboglucans, galactoglucomannans, β-1,2; β-1,3 glucomannans | NA | glucose, mannose, galactose, ribose | |||
Agaricus subrufescens (mycelia) | Extract (ATOM) | β-1,6-D-glucan, protein complex, 5% protein | 100,000-1,000,000 | glucose, mannose, galactose, ribose | [93] |
Aloe barbadensis (leaf gel) | Whole tissue | Dry weight: 10% polysaccharides; acemannan, aloemannan, aloeride, pectic acid, galactans, arabinans, glucomannans | average 2,000,000 | mannose, glucose, galactose, arabinose, xylose, rhamnose | |
Extract (aloemannan) | neutral partially acetylated glucomannan, mainly β-1,4-mannans | >200,000 | mannose, glucose | [121] | |
Extract (aloeride) | NA | 4,000,000-7,000,000 | 37% glucose, 23.9% galactose, 19.5% mannose, 10.3% arabinose | [122] | |
Extract (acemannan) | β-1,4 acetylated mannan | 80,000 | mannose | [123] | |
Aloe barbadensis, (leaf gel), Larix sp. (bark), Anogeissus latifolia (bark), Astragalus gummifer (stem), Oryza sativa (seed), glucosamine
| Extracts (Ambrotose® powder) | β-1,4 acetylated mannan, arabinogalactans, polysaccharide gums, rice starch, 5.4% protein | 57.3% ≥ 950,000; 26.4% < 950,000 and ≥80,000; 16.3% ≤ 10,000 | mannose, galactose, arabinose, glucose, galacturonic acid, rhamnose, xylose, fructose, fucose, glucosamine, galacturonic acid | (unpublished data, Mannatech Incorporated) |
Aloe barbadensis (leaf gel), Larix sp. (bark), Undaria pinnatifida (frond), Anogeissus latifolia (bark), Astragalus gummifer (stem), Oryza sativa (seed), glucosamine
| Extracts (Advanced Ambrotose® powder) | β-1,4 acetylated mannan, arabinogalactans, polysaccharide gums, fucoidans, rice starch, 6% protein, 1% fatty acids | 13% = 1,686,667; 46% = 960,000 30% <950,000 and ≥70,000; 11% ≤ 10,000 | ||
Avena spp. (seed endosperm) | Extract | β-1,3;1,4 particulate (1-3 μ) glucans | 1,100,000 | glucose | [43] |
Avena spp. (seed) | Extract | β-1,4,1,3 particulate glucans (linear chains of β-D-glycopyranosyl units; 70% β 1-4 linked) | 2,000,000 | NA | |
Buplerum falcatum (root) | Extract (bupleuran 2IIc) | 6 linked galactosyl chains with terminal glucuronic acid substituted to β-galactosyl chains | NA | galactose, glucuronic acid, rhamnose | [35] |
Citrus spp. (fruit) | Extract | α-1,4-linked partially esterified D-anhydrogalacturonic acid units interrupted periodically with 1,2-rhamnose | 70,000-100,000 | galactose, galacturonic acid, arabinose, glucose, xylose, rhamnose | [125] |
Cladosiphon okamuranus (frond) | Extract | α-1,3-fucopyranose sulfate | 56,000 | fucose:glucuronic acid (6.1:1.0) | [126] |
Cordyceps sinensis (mycelia) | Extract | β-1,3-D-glucan with 1,6-branched chains | NA | NA | [127] |
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus (seed) | Extract (guar gum) | Main chain of β-1,4-mannopyranosyl units with α-galactopyranosyl units | 220,000 | mannose, galactose | |
Extract (partially-hydrolyzed guar gum) | NA | 20,000 | mannose, galactose | [50] | |
Flammulina velutipes
| Extract | NA | NA | glucose, mannose, galactose | [117] |
Flammulina velutipes (fruit body) | Extract | β-1,3 glucan | NA | glucose | [129] |
Ganoderma lucidum
| Whole tissue | Linear β-1,3-glucans with varying degrees of D-glucopyranosyl branching, β-glucan/protein complexes, heteropolysaccharides | 400,000-1,000,000 | glucose, galactose, mannose, xylose, uronic acid | [130] |
Extract | NA | 7,000-9,000 | NA | [67] | |
Ganoderma lucidum (fruit body) | Extract | NA | 7,000-9,000 | NA | |
β-linked heteroglycan peptide | 513,000 | fructose, galactose, glucose, rhamnose, xylose (3.167: 0.556:6.89:0.549:3.61) | [15] | ||
Ganoderma tsugae
| Extract | 55.6% carbohydrates (12.5% polysaccharides); 12% triterpenes, 1.7% sodium, 0.28% protein, 0% lipid | NA | NA | [53] |
Ginkgo biloba (seed) | Extract | 89.7% polysaccharides | NA | glucose, fructose, galactose, rhamnose | [131] |
Grifola frondosa
| Whole tissue | β-1,3; 1, 6-glucans, α-glucans, mannoxyloglucans, xyloglucans, mannogalactofucans | NA | glucose, fucose, xylose, mannose, galactose | [117] |
Grifola frondosa (fruit body) | Extract (D fraction) | β-1,6-glucan with β-1,3 branches, 30% protein | NA | glucose | [132] |
Extract (X fraction) | β-1,6-D-glucan with α-1,4 branches, 35% protein | 550,000-558,000 | glucose | ||
Hordeum spp. (seed) | Extract | β-1,3;1,4-and β-1,3;1,6-D-glucans | 45,000-404,000 | glucose | [75] |
Primarily linear β-1,3;1,4- glucans | NA | glucose | [124] | ||
Laminaria spp. (frond) | Extract (laminarin) | β-1,3;1-6 glucan | 7,700 | glucose | [29] |
β-1,3 glucan with some β-1,6 branches and a small amount of protein | 4,500-5,500 | glucose | [44] | ||
Extract | Fucoidan | NA | NA | [133] | |
Larix occidentalis (bark) | Extract | β-1,3;1,6-D-galactans with arabinofuranosyl and arabinopyranosyl side chains | 19,000-40,000 | galactose:arabinose (6:1), uronic acid | |
Lentinula edodes
| Extract (SME) | β-1,3-glucans (4-5%), α-1,4-glucan (8-10%), protein (11-14%) | NA | glucose | [80] |
Extract | β-glucan | 1,000 | glucose | [27] | |
Whole tissue | Linear β-1,3-glucans, β-1,4;1,6-glucans, heterogalactan | NA | glucose, galactose, mannose, fucose, xylose | [135] | |
Extract (lentinan) | β-1,3-glucan with 2 β-1,6 glucopyranoside branchings for every 5 β-1,3-glucopyranoside linear linkages | 500,000 | glucose | [136] | |
Lentinula edodes (fruit body)
Lentinula edodes
| Extract (lentinan) | Neutral β-1,3-D glucan with two β-1,6 glucoside branches for every five β-1,3 units | 400,000-800,000 | glucose | [137] |
Extract (KS-2) | Peptide units and mannan connected by α-glycosidic bonds | 60,000-90,000 | mannose, glucose | ||
Lentinula edodes (mycelia or fruit body) | Extract | Triple helical β-1,3-D glucan with β-1,6 glucoside branches | 1,000,000 | glucose | [3] |
Lentinula edodes (mycelia) | Extract (LEM) | 44% sugars, 24.6% protein | ~1,000,000 | xylose, arabinose, glucose, galactose, mannose, fructose | [3] |
Extract (PG101) | 72.4% polysaccharides, 26.2% protein, 1.4% hexosamine | NA | 55.6% glucose, 25.9% galactose, 18.5% mannose | [138] | |
Lycium barbarum
| Whole tissue | α-1,4;1,6-D-glucans, lentinan, β-1,3;1,6 heteroglucans, heterogalactans, heteromannans, xyloglucans | NA | glucose, galactose, mannose, xylose | [139] |
Lycium barbarum (fruit body) | Extract (LBP3p) | 88.36% sugars, 7.63% protein | 157,000 | galactose, glucose, rhamnose, arabinose, mannose, xylose (molar ratio of 1:2.12:1.25:1.10:1.95:1.76) | [91] |
Panax quinquefolium (root) | Extract | Poly-furanosyl-pyranosyl saccharides | NA | arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, galacturonic acid, glucuronic acid | [33] |
NA | NA | glucose, mannose, xylose | [140] | ||
Extract (Cold-fX®) | 90% poly-furanosyl-pyranosyl-saccharides | NA | furanose | [20] | |
Phellinus linteus (fruit body) | Extract | α- and β-linked 1,3 acidic proteoglycan with 1,6 branches | 150,000 | glucose, mannose, arabinose, xylose | [141] |
Phellinus linteus (mycelia) | Extract | 83.2% polysaccharide (4.4% β-glucan), 6.4% protein, 0.1% fat | NA | glucose | [142] |
Pholiota nameko (fruit body) | Extract (PNPS-1) | NA | 114,000 | mannose, glucose, galactose, arabinose, xylose (molar ratio of 1:8.4:13.6:29.6:6.2) | [55] |
Pleurotus ostreatus (mycelia) | Extract | β-1,3;1,6-D-glucans | 316,260 | glucose | [143] |
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
| Extract (WGP) | Particulate β-1,3;1,6-D-glucan | NA | glucose | [144] |
Extract | β-glucans with β-1,6 branches with a β-1,3 regions | NA | glucose | [124] | |
Extract (SBG) | soluble β-1,3-D-glucan with β-1,3 side chains attached with β-1,6 linkages | 20,000 | glucose | [145] | |
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (mycelia) | Extract (SSG) | β-1,3-D-glucan, <1% protein (>98% polysaccharide) | NA | glucose | [83] |
Sclerotium rofsii
| Extract (scleroglucan) | β-1,3;1,6 glucan | 1,000,000 | glucose | [29] |
Trametes versicolor (fruit body) | Extract (PSP) | α-1,4, β-1,3 glucans, 10% peptides | 100,000 | glucose, arabinose, mannose, rhamnose | [146] |
Trametes versicolor (mycelia) | Extract (PSK) | β-1,4;1,3;1,6-D-glucans, protein | 94,000 | glucose (74.6%), mannose (15.5%), xylose (4.8%), galactose (2.7%), fucose (2.4%) | |
Undaria pinnatifida (sporophyll) | Extract | Galactofucan sulfate | 9,000 | fucose:galactose 1.0:1.1 | [148] |
Galactofucan sulfate | 63,000 | fucose:galactose:gluc-uronic acid (1.0:1.0:0.04) | [149] | ||
β-1,3-galactofucan sulphate | 38,000 | fucose, galactose | [150] | ||
Unidentified source | Extract (modified citrus pectin) | NA | 10,000 | galactose, rhamnose, uronic acid | [125] |
Extract (highly methoxylated pectin) | NA | 200,000 | NA | [36] |
Category | Source | Test group | Test | Design | Results | Equivalent human dose* | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arabino-galactans |
Argemone mexicana (arabinogalactan protein) | Pregnant rats | Develop-mental toxicity | 250, 500, or 1,00 mg/kg, gestational days 5-19 | No developmental toxicity: NOAEL = 1 g/kg | 68 g | [151] |
♀ and ♂ rats | Fertility | 250, 500, or 1,00 mg/kg, 1 month | No effects on reproduction: NOAEL = 1 g/kg | ||||
Fucoidans |
Undaria pinnatifida | Rats | Subchronic toxicity | 1.35 g/kg, 1 month | No evidence of toxicity | 91.8 g | [152] |
Galacto-mannans |
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus
| Adolescent and adult ♂ rats | Subchronic and chronic toxicity | 8% of diet, 6-67 weeks | No evidence of toxicity | 8% of diet | [153] |
Rats | Acute toxicity | One 7.06 g/kg dose: observed 2 weeks | LD50 = 7.06 g/kg | 480 g | [96] | ||
Subchronic and chronic toxicity | 1, 2, 4, 7.5 or 15% of diet, 3 months | All doses ↓ ♀ BW; 7.5-15% ↓ ♂ BW; 15% ↓ bone marrow cellularity; ↓ kidney and liver weights | 1-15% of diet | ||||
19 adults with hypercholesterol-emia | 18 g/day, 1 year | Short-term gastric bloating/loose stools, in 8 subjects, resolved in 7-10 days; 2 withdrew because of diarrhea. No toxicity for 13 subjects completing study | 18 g | [154] | |||
16 Type II diabetics | 26.4-39.6 g/day, 6 months | No effects on hematologic, hepatic, or renal function | 39.9 g | [155] | |||
18 Type II diabetics | 30 g/day, 4 months | 30 g | |||||
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus (partially hydrolyzed guar gum) | Mice & rats | Acute toxicity | One 6 g/kg dose; observed 2 weeks | LD50 > 6 g/kg | >408 g | [156] | |
Rats | Subchronic toxicity | 0.2, 1.0 or 5% of diet, 13 weeks | No evidence of toxicity | 5% of diet | |||
0.5 or 2.5 g/kg, 1 month | NOAEL > 2.5 g/kg | >170 g | [157] | ||||
S. typhimurium
| Mutagenicity | Ames test | Not mutagenic | NA | |||
Glucans |
Agaricus subrufescens (aqueous extract) | Rats | Subchronic toxicity | 0.63, 1.25, 2.5 or 5% of diet, 3 months | NOAEL = 5% of diet | 5% of diet | [158] |
3 women with advanced cancers | Case reports | Specific identity of products, doses, and durations of intake unknown | Severe hepatotoxicity; two patients died | NA | [97] | ||
Agaricus subrufescens (freeze dried powder) | 24 normal adults and 24 adults with liver problems | Subchronic toxicity | 3 g, 4 months | No evidence of toxicity | 3 g | [159] | |
Ganoderma lucidum
(supplement) | Elderly woman | Case report | 1 year G. lucidum (and another unidentified product, initiated one month previous) | Elevated liver enzymes and liver tissue damage | NA | [98] | |
Grifola frondosa (powder) | Rats | Acute toxicity | One 2 g/kg dose | No evidence of toxicity | 136 g | [160] | |
Lentinula edodes (powder) | 10 adults | Safety | 4 g/day for 10 weeks; repeated 3-6 months later | 50% of subjects experienced blood eosinophilia, ↑ eosinophil granule proteins in serum and stool, ↑GI symptoms | 4 g | [99] | |
Lentinula edodes
(SME) | Nude mice | Safety | 10% of diet days 1-18, 33-50 | No adverse events | 10% of diet | [80] | |
61 men with prostate cancer | 0.1 g/kg, 6 months | No adverse events | 6.8 g | ||||
Lentinus lepideus (PG101) | Female mice | Subchronic toxicity | 0.5 g/kg, 24 days | No evidence of toxicity | 34 g | [92] | |
Phellinus linteus
(crude extract) | Rats | Acute toxicity | One 5 g/kg dose; observed 2 weeks | LD50 > 5 g/kg | 349 g | [161] | |
Pleurotus ostreatus (aqueous extract) | Mice | Acute toxicity | One 3 g/kg dose; observed 1 day | LD50 > 3 g/kg | >204.g | [100] | |
Subacute toxicity | 319 mg/kg, 1 month | Hemorrhages in intestine, liver, lung, kidney; inflammation and microabscesses in liver | 21.7 g | ||||
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (particulate glucan [WGP]) | Rats | Acute toxicity | One 2 g/kg, observed 2 weeks | LD50 > 2 g/kg | >136 g | [144] | |
Subchronic toxicity | 2, 33.3 or 100 mg/kg, 3 months | NOAEL = 100 mg/kg | 6.80 g | ||||
Heteroglycans |
Trametes versicolor
(PSP) | Rats | Subchronic toxicity | 1.5, 3.0 or 6.0 mg/kg, 2 months | No evidence of toxicity | 408 mg | [162] |
Rats & monkeys | Subchronic and chronic toxicity | 100-200X equivalent human dose, 6 months | No evidence of toxicity | NA | |||
Trametes versicolor
(PSK) | Humans with colon cancer | Safety | 3 g/day, up to 7 years | No significant adverse events | 3 g | [57] | |
Humans with colorectal cancer | 3 g/day, 2 years | 3 g | [58] | ||||
Mannans |
Aloe vera gel | Dogs | Acute toxicity | Fed one 32 g/kg; observed 2 weeks | LD50 > 32 g/kg | >2,176 g | Bill Pine, personal communi-cation |
Rats | One 21.5 g/kg; observed 2 weeks | LD50 > 10 g/kg | >680 g |
Discussion
Category | Product | Metabol-ized by human gut bacteria? | Study type | Fate (method: tissues detected) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arabinogalactans |
Larix spp. | yes |
in vitro
| NA | |
Fucoidans |
Undaria pinnatifida
| no |
in vitro
| Ab: human plasma | |
Galactomannans |
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus (partially hydrolyzed guar gum) | yes |
in vivo
| NA | [171] |
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus (guar gum) | yes |
in vitro
| NA | [167] | |
Glucans |
Hordeum vulgare
| NA |
in vivo
| Fluorescein-labeled: mouse Mø in the spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes | [73] |
Laminaria digitata (laminarin) | yes |
in vitro
| NA | ||
Sclerotium rofsii (scleroglucan) glucan phosphate, Laminaria spp. (laminarin) | NA |
in vivo
| Alexa Fluor 488-labeled: mouse intestinal epithelial cells, plasma, GALT | [29] | |
Saccharomyces cervisiae (particulate) | NA |
in vivo
| Fluorescein-labeled: mouse macrophage in the spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes | [73] | |
Trametes versicolor
(PSK) | NA |
in vivo
|
14C-labeled: rat and rabbit serum; mouse GI tract, bone marrow, salivary glands, liver, brain, spleen, pancreas | [173] | |
Mannans |
Aloe barbadensis (aloemannan) | yes |
in vitro
| FITC-labeled: mouse, GI tract | |
Aloe barbadensis
(gel powder) | yes |
in vitro
| NA | [163] | |
Aloe barbadensis (acemannan) | NA |
in vivo
|
14C-labeled: dog systemic, particularly liver, bone marrow, gut, kidney, thymus, spleen | (Carrington Laboratories, personal communication) | |
Mixed polysaccharide products | Ambrotose complex®, Advanced Ambrotose® powder | yes |
in vitro
| NA | |
Pectins | NA | yes |
in vitro
| NA | |
Buplerum falcatum (bupleuran 2IIc) | NA |
in vivo
| Ab bound: mouse Peyer's patch, liver | [109] |