Introduction
Methods
Results
Study characteristics | Number (n) or percentage (%) |
---|---|
Number of studies included | 45 |
Number of African countries where the studies were conducted | 13 |
Number of types of studies | 3 |
Studies reporting on inflammation plus hypertension plus HIV only | 5 |
Studies reporting on hypertension plus HIV only | 35 |
Studies reporting on HIV plus immune activation/inflammation | 5 |
Studies reporting on inflammation plus hypertension in African populations | 0 |
Overall prevalence of HTN in PLWH on ART (% range) | 6.4–50.2 |
Overall prevalence of HTN in ART-naive PLWH (% range) | 2–41 |
Overall prevalence of HTN in HIV-negative population (% range) | 13.7–44 |
HTN prevalence percentage differences within studies, range (│magnitude│) | |
PLWH on ART minus ART naive | − 12.3 to 23.4 (│35.7│) |
PLWH on ART minus HIV negative | − 6.3 to 12.4 (│18.7│) |
HIV negative minus ART naive | − 5.3 to 11 (│16.3│) |
Author/ | Type of study, country, and population | Sample size and subjects | Key findings | Limitations/notes/conclusion |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chepchirchir et al. 2018 [13••] | Cross-section study conducted in Kenya among PLHIV | 126 HIV-positive with and without hypertension | • HTN prevalence was 23.2% • IL-17A was associated with hypertension in HIV {HTN 75.51 ± 84.89 versus normotensives 42.23 ± 64.40; CI 6.81–59.77, p < 0.001 and females were more likely to have higher IL-17A levels than males in HIV (p < 0.001) • IL-17A was affected by BMI r(124) = 0.223 p = 0.070 but not stress levels, ART, WHO stage and CD4+ count • IFN-γ {HTN 6.87 ± 35.66; normotensives 0.00 ± 0.00 CI − 1.96–15.71, p = 0.003} correlated negatively with hypertension status (rs = − 0.217, p < 0.015) • IL-4,-2,-6,-8,-10, TNFα were not associated with hypertension | • Monitoring and analysis of cytokine expression may help to predict patients’ pathways in their response to cART therapy and risk of metabolic disorders • IFNγ is potentially useful in determining risk of developing hypertension in this population • Mechanism of interaction between hypertension and inflammation or immune activation not very explicit |
Peck et al. 2014 [14••] | Cross-sectional study conducted in Tanzania among PLHIV | 454 participants: HIV+ on ART, ART-naive HIV+ and HIV-negative controls | • Prevalence of HTN in HIV negative was 16.3% (25/153) • Prevalence of HTN in HIV+ on ART was 28.7 (43/150) was the highest (p = 0.01) among the groups with higher odds HTN even after adjustment (odds ratio (OR) = 2.19 (1.18 to 4.05), p = 0.01) • Prevalence of HTN in ART-naive HIV+ was 5.3% (8/151), and lowest among group (p = 0.003) with lower odds of HTN even after adjustment (OR = 0.35 (0.15 to 0.84), p = 0.02) • The prevalence HTN was lowest in group with the lowest average CD4+ T cell count (HIV-infected ART naive) and highest in the group in which the CD4+ T cell count had been low and had then been reconstituted in the setting of ART • In the HIV+ group, higher CD4+ T cell counts were associated with more hypertension and higher blood pressures • Age, vigorous work, current alcohol use, and BMI were all associated with hypertension • Only PI use was associated with HTN • Among the HIV-infected adults with HTN, 75% were undiagnosed, 85% were untreated, and > 95% were uncontrolled | • HIV-infected adults with hypertension were rarely aware of their diagnosis but often have evidence of kidney disease • It was unknown whether chronic inflammation accelerates HTN • High prevalence of hypertension among HIV-infected adults on ART could be related to dysregulated inflammation due to immune reconstitution • Mechanism of interaction between hypertension and inflammation or immune activation not explicit |
Fourie et al. 2015 [15] | Prospective study conducted in South Africa | 309 participants: 66 HIV+ on ART, 78 (ART-naive HIV+ and165 HIV-negative controls | • The inflammatory markers (CRP and IL-6) did not differ between the three groups • Endothelial activation was not accompanied by increased inflammation • BP comparable among groups | • Mechanism of interaction between hypertension and inflammation or immune activation not explicit • Several cytokines not reported |
Okello et al. 2016 [16] | Prospective cohort study conducted in Uganda | 536 HIV positive initiating ART | • Systolic BP increased by 9.6 mmHg/year (95% CI 7.3–11.8) in the first 6 months of ART, then plateaued • Male gender, overweight, and a CD4 count < 100 cells were associated with incident hypertension | • Blood pressure increases early after ART initiation in Ugandans. Traditional risk factors, rather than immune activation were associated with incident hypertension in this population • Only sCD14, sCD163 (immune activation markers), and IL-6 (inflammatory marker) were examined • Mechanism of interaction between hypertension and inflammation or immune activation not explicit |
Borkum et al. 2017 [17] | Cross-sectional study conducted among South African blacks | 67 HIV-positive participants on ART > 5 years | • Prevalence of non-dipping BP was 65% • High levels of inflammation (hsCRP) • There was no association on multivariable analysis between dipping status and traditional risk factors for non-dipping BP, such as obesity, autonomic dysfunction, and older age | • 91% (n = 61) were females • Inflammation was only assessed using hsCRP • Mechanism of interaction between hypertension and inflammation or immune activation not explicit |
Author/ | Type of study, country and population | Sample size and subjects | Key findings | Limitations/notes/conclusion |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bloomfield et al. 2011 [18] | Retrospective study conducted in Kenya among PLWH | 12,194 HIV-positive participants | • HTN prevalence among men 11.2% and women 7.4%, overall 8.7% • Age, overweight/obesity, longer duration on PI were not associated with HTN • HTN more common in younger HIV vs older • Higher HTN cases associated with patients with higher CD4 in men than women but blunted HTN occurred with older age | Immune mechanisms not addressed explicitly |
Julius et al. 2011 [19] | Cross-sectional study conducted in South Africa among PLWH on ART | 304 | Prevalence of HTN was 19.1%. 23.9% in men and 17.7% in women (95% confidence interval (CI) 14.7–23.5), p = 0.10) | Immune mechanism not addressed |
Diouf et al. 2012 [20] | Cross-section study conducted in Senegal among PLWH | 242 HIV | • 28.1% had hypertension • ART duration not associated with HTN • Longer exposure to LPV/r was associated with a reduced risk of hypertension | Higher hypertension observed for male patients with CD4 count above 200 cells/μL, but differences were not statistically significant |
Ngatchou et al. 2013 [21] | Cross-sectional study conducted in Cameroon among PLWH | 204 participants consisting of 108 HIV ART naive vs 96 HIV negative | Prevalence of HTN in HIV was 41% and HIV negative 44% | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Parikh et al. 2013 [22] | Cross-sectional study conducted in Uganda and Zimbabwe among PLWH | 3316 | Prevalence of systolic and diastolic hypertension was 21.3% and 19.0% for older adults; and 9.2% and 3.5% for younger adults with HIV (both, p < 0.001) | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Ekali et al. 2013 [23] | Cross-sectional study conducted in Cameroon among PLWH | 143 | SBP and DBP increased with duration on ART. HTN was associated with longer duration on ART | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Muhammad et al. 2013 [24] | Cross-sectional study conducted in Nigeria among PLWH | 200 HIV+ ART and ART-naive participants | HTN prevalence was 17% in ART and 2% in ART naive (p < 0.001) HAART was associated with HTN | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Mateen et al. 2013 [25] | Cross-sectional study conducted in Uganda among PLWH initiating ART | 5563 | HTN prevalence was 27.9% | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Botha et al. 2014 [26] | Prospective study conducted in South Africa among PLWH | 137 participants: 66 HIV+ on ART and 71 HIV+ ART-naive participants | HIV+ on ART had higher pulse pressure (13.3%; p = 0.004), systolic blood pressure (4.5%; p = 0.029), and CD4 cell count (9.2%; p = 0.009) levels over 5 years | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Ogunmola et al. 2014 [27] | Cross-section conducted in Nigeria among PLWH | 403 participants. Groups: HIV-negative controls, HIV+ on ART, and ART-naive HIV+ | • Prevalence was 13.7% in HIV negative, 19.0% in HIV+ ART naive, and 12.3% in HIV-positive ART subjects • Multivariate regression analysis showed no relationship between hypertension and HIV status (p = 0.293) or ART status (p = 0.587) but only with BMI | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Shaffer et al. 2014 [28] | Prospective study; randomized, open-label ART trials among 7 African countries (South Africa; Kenya; Zimbabwe, Botswana, Zambia, Malawi, and Uganda)/population included HIV+ women only with immunocompromised CD < 200 | 741 | Over 144 weeks NVP compared to LPV/r group had greater mean increases in BP (diastolic BP 22.7% vs. 6.5%) | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Sawadogo 2014 [29] | Cross-sectional study conducted in Burkina Faso among PLWH on ART | 400 participants | Hypertension prevalence was 12.0% | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Kagaruki et al. 2014 [30] | Cross-section study conducted in Tanzania | 671 participants HIV+ on ART and ART naive | • The prevalence of hypertension was 26.2% and was high among those on ART (30.0% vs 21.9%, p = 0.010) • Aged > 40 years (AOR = 2.52, 95% CI 1.37–4.63), abnormal waist circumference (AOR = 2.37 95% CI 1.13–5.00), overweight/obesity (AOR = 2.71, 95% CI 1.26–5.84), and male sex (AOR = 1.17, 1.02–4.20) were the predictors of hypertension among patients on ART while raised total cholesterol (AOR = 1.47 (1.01–2.21) and being aged > 40 years (AOR = 3.42, 95% CI 2.06–5.70) were predictors for hypertension among ART-naive patients | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Abrahams et al. 2015 [31] | Prospective study from South Africa in HIV+ women | 103 participants | • Systolic and diastolic blood pressure increased significantly and the proportion of participants with hypertension increased from 3.9 to 15.5% (p < 0.001) • Long-term exposure to ART, increased in hypertension • Stavudine and efavirenz and nevirapine were significantly associated with hypertension | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Okello et al. 2015 [32] | Prospective study in Uganda | 3389 participants; HIV+ initiating ART | • 13% incidence of HTN • Male gender (AHR 1.88, 95% CI 1.49–2.39), increasing age (AHR 1.36, 95% CI 1.02–1.82 for those > 40 years compared to those aged 30 years or less), nadir CD4 count (AHR 0.77, 95% CI 0.60–0.99 and AHR 0.64 95%CI 0.41–1.00 for a nadir CD4 cell count 100–350 and > 350 cells/mm3 compared to < 100 cell/mm3, respectively), and high baseline body mass index (AHR 2.50, 95% CI 1.56–4.01 for those with a BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 versus normal BMI) were independently associated with increased risk of hypertension • Neither use of TDF versus AZT, nor use of NVP versus EFV was associated with risk of hypertension in the multivariate model • Inverse relationships between hypertension risk and CD4 count nadir. Data suggest that immunosuppression and/or viral burden play a role in promoting early vascular damage as evidenced by the association of a low CD4 cell count with subclinical atherosclerotic damage, a processor of hypertension | • Results are the first to document high rates incident hypertension during longitudinal follow-up among initially normotensive PLHIV initiating ART • Particularly notable was the magnitude of hypertension incidence in younger groups • Potential mechanisms for increased incidence of hypertension postulated in this paper include HIV-associated chronic inflammation, immune suppression, endothelial activation, and dysfunction, as well as the direct infection of arterial vascular smooth muscle cells by HIV • Alternatively, incident hypertension in this setting may reflect a “return to health” as individuals gain weight during ART, particularly with advanced pre-ART disease stages Limitation: smoking status and laboratory results of blood glucose, serum creatinine, serum electrolytes, and serum lipids were not available for most patients; therefore, the contribution of clinical factors known to be associated with hypertension such as diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and hyperlipidemia could not be assessed |
Dimala et al. 2016 [33] | Cross-sectional study conducted in Cameroon among PLWH | 200 HIV+ ART and ART-naive participants | • Prevalence of HTN in patients on HAART was twice (38%; 95% CI 28.5–48.3) that of the HAART-naive patients (19%; 95% CI, 11.8–28.1), p = 0.003 • CD4 cell count (mean ± SD, cells/μL) of ART 501 ± 225 was higher than the ART naive 197 ± 160 ˂ 0.001 • HTN was associated with older age and male gender, in the HAART group | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Feigl et al. 2016 [34] | Prospective study from South Africa among PLWH | 505 participants: HIV+ on ART, ART-naive HIV+ and HIV-negative controls | • DBP increased in ART naive but SBP reduced compared to the HIV-negative group • SBP in the HIV+ on ART− group showed a significant decline | They could not control for a range of potential time-variant confounders in their analysis due to lack of data |
Kalyesubula et al. 2016 [35] | Retrospective study from Uganda among PLWH | 1996 HIV+ on ART and ART-naive participants | • Prevalence of hypertension was 20.9% (418/1996) rising from 16.9% in 2009 to 32.3% in 2013 • Patients > 50 years of age had 3.12 times the odds of hypertension compared with patients aged 20–29 years (95% CI 2.00 to 4.85) • Men had 1.65 times the odds of hypertension compared with women (95% CI 1.34 to 2.03) and patients with a BMI of 35–39 kg/m2 had 3.93 times the odds of hypertension compared with patients with a BMI < 25 kg/m2 • Patients with a WHO disease staging of 3 or 4 had 0.60 times the odds of hypertension compared with patients with stage 1 or 2 (95% CI 0.46 to 0.76) | Analysis did not distinguish ART and ART-naive patients as this can confound results |
Kwarisiima et al. 2016 [36] | Cross-sectional study from Uganda | 94,274 participants HIV+ and HIV negative | • Hypertension prevalence was 11% among HIV-positive individuals • 79% of patients were previously undiagnosed, 85% were not taking medication, and 50% of patients on medication had uncontrolled blood pressure • Multivariate predictors of hypertension included older age, male gender, higher BMI, lack of education, alcohol use, and residence in Eastern Uganda • HIV-negative status was independently associated with higher odds of hypertension (OR 1.2, 95% CI 1.1–1.4). Viral suppression of HIV did not significantly predict hypertension among HIV positives • The prevalence of HTN was greater among HIV-negative adults (14%) than among HIV-positive adults (11%) • Among HIV-positive adults with HTN, 20% reported prior knowledge of HTN, and 14% reported taking medication • Similar to the overall population, 46% of HIV-positive adults with HTN achieved BP control with antihypertensive medications | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not explicitly addressed |
Njelekela et al. 2016 [37] | Cross-sectional study from Tanzania among PLWH | 34,111 HIV-positive ART naive only | • Prevalence of hypertension was found to be 12.5% • Risk of hypertension was 10% more in male than female patients • Patients aged ≥ 50 years had more than 2-fold increased risk for hypertension compared to 30–39-year-old patients • Overweight and obesity were associated with 51% and 94% increased risk for hypertension compared to normal weight patients • Low CD4+ T cell count, advanced WHO clinical disease stage, and history of TB were associated with 10%, 42%, and 14% decreased risk for hypertension | Immune suppression and history of TB were associated with lower risk for hypertension |
Osegbe et al. 2016 [38] | Cross-section study from Nigeria | 283 HIV+ on ART, ART naive and HIV-negative participants | • SBP in HIV+ ART was higher (124.9 ± 20.7 mmHg) compared to HIV+ ART naive which was higher than (121.5 ± 20.7) HIV negative (114.8 ± 11.7 p = 0.001) • hsCRP = 2.9 (1.4–11.6), p = 0.002 were higher among the HIV-naive subjects • Higher prevalences of the risk factors were noted among the HIV-treated subjects except low HDL-C (p < 0.001) and hsCRP (p = 0.03) which were higher in the HIV-naive group | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed; however, hsCRP was higher among ART-naive patients |
Divala et al. 2016 [39] | Cross-section study from Malawi | 952 HIV+ (95% were on ART and 5% ART naive) | • Prevalence was 23.7% (95%-confidence interval 21.1–26.6; rural 21.0% vs. urban 26.5%; p = 0.047) • Hypertension diagnosis was associated with increasing age, higher body mass index, presence of proteinuria, being on regimen zidovudine/lamivudine/nevirapine and inversely with World Health Organization clinical stage at ART initiation | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Magodoro et al. 2016 [40] | Cross-section study conducted in Zimbabwe among PLWH | 1033 participants | • Hypertension prevalence was 10.2% | Studies had other substantial burden of comorbid non-communicable diseases among HIV-infected patients in a high HIV and low-income setting |
Nduka et al. 2016 [41] | Prospective study from Nigeria | 303 participants—229 on ART and 74 ART naive | In this propensity score-matched sample, the estimated average treatment effects on the treated (ATT) for the effects of antiretroviral therapy on systolic (7.85 mmHg, 95% CI 3.72 to 15.68) and diastolic blood pressure (7.45 mmHg, 95% CI 4.99 to 13.61) were statistically significant (p < 0.001 for each) | There is a high probability that the epidemiological association between antiretroviral therapy and increased blood pressure be causal in nature among people living with HIV in Sub-Saharan African settings |
Bauer et al. 2017 [42] | Prospective study conducted in Lusaka, Zambia among PLWH | 896 cohort HIV+ on ART participants | • 98 (10.9%) had HBP, and 57 (6.4%) had HTN • Increasing age (10-year increase in age: adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.50; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.20–1.93), male sex (AOR = 2.33, 95% CI 1.43–3.80), and overweight/obesity (AOR = 4.07; 95% CI 1.94–8.53) were associated with HBP • Among 66 patients with HBP, 35 (53.0%) reported awareness of the condition • Pre-ART CD4+ count was not associated with HBP HBP tends to become more common after ART initiation and may cause HTN | Coinfection with HBV, HBP was defined as a single elevated measurement, and BP was measured only once at each time point. This may have inflated the number of patients truly needing treatment, as only 58% of patients with HBP were confirmed to have HTN These data demonstrate that although integration of BP screening and management in HIV care settings was feasible in Zambia, virtually no patient had optimal management of HBP |
Kazooba et al. 2017 [43] | Cross-section study from Uganda | 1024 HIV+ ART | • Hypertension prevalence was 22.6% • Protease inhibitor (PI) containing regimens were significantly associated with, hypertension • Men had significantly higher mean SBP (p = 0.004) • Increasing age was significantly associated with higher means of SBP, DBP • Increasing intensity of physical activity was significantly associated with lower; SBP, DBP | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Mayanja et al. 2017 [44] | Prospective study from Uganda | 1095 HIV+ on ART individuals | • Patients on non-PI regimens had higher mean diastolic hypertension than patients on PI regimens, p < 0.001 • Prevalence of hypertension was 14.5% | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Okpa et al. 2017 [45] | Cross-section study from Nigeria | 112 HIV+ and 309 HIV-negative participants | • The prevalence of HTN was 19.5% among HIV-infected persons • The prevalence of pre-HTN in HIV-positive and HIV-negative participants was 34.5% and 38.9%, respectively • The higher prevalence of HTN in HIV patients has been shown to be associated with the use of ART • In our study, the risk factors that were associated with HTN in HIV-infected patients and the HIV-N controls were older age, increased weight and BMI, and presence of obesity. Male sex was associated with HTN in the HIV-infected population, but this was, however, not so in the general population • Male sex and duration of exposure to ART and CD4 count levels > 200 cells/mm3 were associated with HTN in HIV-infected patients, whereas the absence of family history of HTN was significantly associated with HTN in both groups • The mean age, weight, and BMI were significantly higher in HIV patients with HTN as compared to those without HTN, p < 0.05 • A proportion of HIV patients with a family history of HTN and obesity had HTN, and these were statistically significant (p < 0.05) • Also, the mean waist-hip ratio, duration of illness, exposure to ART, and CD4 count levels were higher in HIV patients with HTN as compared to those without HTN, but these were not statistically significant | Diet and sodium intake of the participants and renal function of the participants which have been shown in several studies to have effect on BP were not looked at in our study Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
RodrõÂguez-Arbolõ et al. 2017 [46] | Prospective study from Tanzania | 955 HIV+ initiating ART | • 111 (11.6%) were hypertensive at recruitment • 80 (9.6%) of them developed hypertension during a median follow-up of 144 days from time of enrolment into the cohort [incidence rate 120.0 cases/1000 person-years, 95% confidence interval (CI) 97.2 ± 150.0] | Traditional cardiovascular risk factors predicted incident hypertension, but no association was observed with immunological or ART status. These data support the implementation of routine hypertension screening and integrated management into HIV programs in rural Sub-Saharan Africa |
Isa et al. 2017 [47] | Prospective study from Nigeria/ | Follow-up from initiating HIV+ ART and naive | • Prevalence of hypertension at enrolment was 19.3% (95% CI 17.6–20.9%) • Age (p < 0.001), male sex (p = 0.004), and body mass index (BMI) (p < 0.001) were independent risk factors for hypertension • 12 months after initiating ART, a further 31% (95% CI 17.6–20.9%) had developed hypertension. Total prevalence at that point was 50.2% • Hypertension among those on ART was associated with age (p = 0.009) and BMI (p = 0.008), but not with sex • There were no independently significant associations between hypertension and CD4+ counts, viral load, or type of ART | Hypertension is common in HIV-infected individuals attending the HIV clinic. Patients initiating ART have a high risk of developing hypertension in the first year of ART |
Magande et al. 2016 [48] | Case control study from Zimbabwe among HIV+ on ART | 300 (152 controlled HTN, 152 uncontrolled HTN) | • Adding salt to dishes regularly AOR = 5.69 (3.19–10.16), body mass index (BMI) above 25 kg/m2 AOR = 2.81 (1.60–4.91) and history of elevated blood pressure in previous year AOR = 2.34 (1.33–4.13) were independent risk factors for uncontrolled hypertension • Independent protective factors were duration more than 2 years since HIV diagnosis AOR = 0.58 (0.35–0.95), duration less than 5 years since hypertension diagnosis aOR = 0.50 (0.30–0.83) and walking or cycling as a means of transport AOR = 0.27 (0.16–0.48) | Salt HTN interaction attributed to water retention resulting in high intravascular volumes. Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Chepchirchir et al. 2018 [13••] | Cross-section study from Kenya among HIV+ | 297 | The prevalence of hypertension was found to be 23.2% | Hypertension is a highly prevalent comorbidity in HIV patients. The risk factors include prolonged use of ART as well as increased body mass index. The effects of hypertension on HIV progression include low CD4+ T cell counts which complicate the underlying immunosuppression |
Okello et al. 2017 [49] | Cross-section study from Uganda among PLWH | 577 HIV-infected and 538 matched HIV-uninfected participants | • HIV infection was associated with 3.3 mmHg lower systolic BP (1.2–5.3 mmHg), 1.5 mmHg lower diastolic BP (0.2–2.9 mmHg), 0.3 m/s lower pulse wave velocity (0.1–0.4 mmHg), and 30% lower odds of hypertension (10%–50%) • Body mass index mediated 25% of the association between HIV and systolic BP | HIV infection was inversely associated with systolic BP, diastolic BP, and pulse wave velocity Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Mukeba-Tshialala et al. 2017 [50] | Cross-section study from the Republic of Congo | 592 HIV-uninfected and 445 HIV-infected patients | • 11.5% of HIV-infected patients had an average blood pressure suggesting hypertension versus 10.6% of HIV uninfected (p = 0.751) • But in absolute value, HIV-infected patients had a median of diastolic blood pressure of 90 mmHg versus 85 mmHg of HIV uninfected (p < 0.001) | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Mathabire Rücker et al. 2018 [51] | Cross-section from Malawi among PLWH | 379 HIV-infected patients on ART and 356 controls participated | • Among HIV patients, the prevalence of hypertension was 19.5% (95% CI 15.6–23.6), of which 60.3% (n = 44) was previously undiagnosed • Among controls, 25.8% (95% CI 21.6–30.7) prevalence of HTN and 37.0% of controls with elevated blood pressure | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Author/ | Type of study/populations/country/study period | Sample size/methods | Key findings | Limitations/notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fourie et al. 2011 [52] | Sub-study nested in the larger longitudinal, multinational PURE study in South Africa among PLWH/HIV+ and HIV− | 600 HIV+ and HIV-negative controls | • HIV+ showed higher IL-6, CRP, ICAM-1, and VCAM-1 levels compared to HIV negative • Accelerated vascular aging and probable early atherosclerosis in the older HIV-infected participants • HIV-1 Tat protein (therefore HIV itself) induced the expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |
Cassol et al. 2010 [53] | Cross-section study conducted from South Africa | 90 participants 10 HIV-negative controls, 20 HIV+ on ART, and 60 ART-naive HIV+ | • CD14+16+ positively correlated with HIV-1 viremia • IL-6 increased in presence of OPIs • sCD14 and TNF correlated with plasma LPS levels and remained elevated in ART • Microbial translocation is a major force driving chronic inflammation in HIV-infected Africans receiving cART | All participants were immunocompromised with CD4 counts of < 200 cells/μL Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed Prevention of monocyte activation may be especially effective at enhancing therapeutic outcomes |
Fourie et al. 2011 [52] | Cross-section study from South Africa | 300 ART-naive HIV+ vs 300 HIV negative | • Suggestion of inflammatory injury of the endothelium | Contribution of innate and adaptive immune system were not included or addressed |
• Indication of accelerated vascular aging and probable early atherosclerosis in the older HIV-infected participants | ||||
Canipe et al. 2014 [54] | Zambia/pilot study 12 months prospective | 33 HIV+ on ART for 12 months | • Biomarkers of increased microbial translocation (lipopolysaccharide binding protein, endotoxin core IgG and IgM, and soluble CD14) were associated with high levels of systemic inflammation before and after initiation of ART, suggesting that impaired gut immune defenses contribute to innate immune activation in this population | All the HIV-infected adults in the study were undernourished |
Siedner et al. 2016 [55] | Prospective study from Uganda | 105 HIV positive initiating ART | • Persistent immune activation (sCD14 level and kynurenine-tryptophan ratio) and inflammation (IL-6) despite ART-mediated viral suppression predicted future atherosclerotic burden among HIV-infected Ugandans | Immune mechanism or inflammation as it relates to hypertension was not addressed |