Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Interpersonal Relationships and Sex Differences in the Development of Conduct Problems

  • Published:
Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article investigates the role of interpersonal relationships in shaping sex differences in the manifestation, etiology, and developmental course of conduct problems and their treatment needs. The review examines whether: (1) Girls’ conduct problems are more likely than boys’ to manifest as a function of disrupted relationships with caretakers and peers; (2) For girls more than for boys, the outcomes of conduct problems in adolescence and adulthood, and related treatment needs, are more likely to be a consequence of the quality of interpersonal relationships with others, particularly opposite-sex peers and partners. Evidence reviewed suggests that boys and girls share many similarities in their expression of conduct problems, but that a relational perspective does unify important differences. There is fair evidence that girls with conduct problems are more likely to come to the attention of authorities because of chaotic, unstable family relationships, and to express antisocial behavior in the context of close relationships; there is stronger evidence that the course and outcomes of conduct problems in females versus males pertain to interpersonal relationship impairments. Those sex differences map onto specific differences in treatment needs. Further empirical testing of the proposed relational model is indicated.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Youth Self-Report and 1991 Profile. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Erkanli, A., & Worthman, C. M. (1999). Pubertal changes in hormone levels and depression in girls. Psychological Medicine, 29, 1043–1053.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Worthman, C. M. (1998). Puberty and depression: The roles of age, pubertal status and pubertal timing. Psychological Medicine, 28, 51–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Appel, A. E., & Holden, G. W. (1998). The co-occurrence of spouse and physical child abuse: A review and appraisal. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 578–599.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bardone, A. M., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Dickson, N., & Silva, P. A. (1996). Adult mental health and social outcomes of adolescent girls with depression and conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 811–829.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beach, S. R. H. (1996). Marital therapy in the treatment of depression. In C. Mundt & M. J. Goldstein (Eds.), Interpersonal factors in the origin and course of affective disorders (pp. 341–361). London: Gaskell/Royal College of Psychiatrists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beach, S. R. H. (2001). Marital therapy for co-occurring marital discord and depression. In S. R. H. Beach (Ed.), Marital and family processes in depression: A scientific foundation for clinical practice (pp. 205–224). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benenson, J. F., Morash, D., & Petrakos, H. (1998). Gender differences in emotional closeness between preschool children and their mothers. Sex Roles, 38, 975–985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, D. P., Cohen, P., Skodol, A., Bezirganian, A., & Brook, J. S. (1996). Childhood predictors of adolescent personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 15, 907–913.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bird, H. R., Gould, M. S., & Staghezza, B. M. (1993). Patterns of diagnostic comorbidity in a community sample of children aged 6 through 9 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 361–368.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bjerregaard, B., & Smith, C. (1993). Gender differences in gang participation, delinquency, and substance use. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 9, 329–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjorkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992). Do girls manipulate and boys fight? Developmental trends in regard to direct and indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 18, 117–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borduin, C. M., Mann, B. J., Cone, L. T., Henggeler, S. W., Fucci, B. R., Blaske, D. M., et al. (1995). Multisystemic treatment of serious juvenile offenders: Long-term prevention of criminality and violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 569–578.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bottcher, J. (2001). Social practices of gender: How gender relates to delinquency in the everyday lives of high risk youth. Criminology, 39, 893–932.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B. B. (1999). You’re going out with whom?: Peer group influences on adolescent romantic relationships. In W. Furman, B. B. Brown, & C. Feiring (Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence (pp. 291–329). New York: Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunswick, A., Lewis, C., & Messeri, P. (1991). A life span perspective on drug use and affective distress in an African-American sample. Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 123–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunswick, A., Messeri, P., & Titus, S. P. (1992). Predictive factors in adult substance abuse: A prospective study of African-American adults. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Budnick, K. J., & Shields-Fletcher, E. (1998, September). What about girls? OJJDP Fact Sheet, #84. Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairns, R. B., & Cairns, B. D. (1994). Lifelines and risks: Pathways of youth in our time. New York: Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairns, R. B., Cairns, B. D., Neckerman, H. J., Ferguson, L. L., & Gariepy, J. (1989). Growth and aggression: 1. Childhood to early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 25, 320–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairns, R. B., Cairns, B. D., Neckerman, H. J., Gest, S. D., & Gariepy, J. (1988). Social networks and aggressive behavior: Peer support or peer rejection? Developmental Psychology, 24, 815–823.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calhoun, G., Conley, S., & Bolton, J. A. (1984). Comparison of delinquents and non-delinquents in ethnicity, ordinal position, and self-perception. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 323–328.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calhoun, G., Jurgens, J., & Chen, F. (1993). The neophyte female delinquent: A review of the literature. Adolescence, 28, 461–471.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A. (1995). Female participation in gangs. In M. W. Klein, C. L. Maxson, & J. Miller (Eds.), The modern gang reader. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capaldi, D. M., & Clark, S. (1998). Prospective family predictors of aggression toward female partners for at-risk young men. Developmental Psychology, 34, 1175–1188.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capaldi, D. M., Crosby, L., & Stoolmiller, M. (1996). Predicting the timing of sexual intercourse for at-risk adolescent males. Child Development, 67, 344–359.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capaldi, D. M., Dishion, T. J., Stoolmiller, M., & Yoerger, K. (2001). Aggression toward female partners by at-risk young men: The contribution of male adolescent friendships. Developmental Psychology, 37, 61–73.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capaldi, D. M., Pears, K. C., Patterson, G. R., & Owen, L. D. (2003). Continuity of parenting practices across generations in an at-risk sample: A prospective comparison of direct and mediated associations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 127–142.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carey, G. (1994). Twin imitation for antisocial behavior: Implications for genetic and family environment research. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 18–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., Lynam, D., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1993). Unraveling girls’ delinquency: Biological, dispositional, and contextual contributions to adolescent misbehavior. Developmental Psychology, 29, 19–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (1991). Individual differences are accentuated during periods of social change. Journal of Social and Personality Psychology, 61, 157–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, P., & Moore, K. J. (2002). Chaos and trauma in the lives of adolescent females with antisocial behavior and delinquency. In R. Geffner (Series Ed.), & R. Greenwald (Vol. Ed.), Trauma and juvenile delinquency: Theory, research, and interventions (pp. 79–108). Binghamton, NY: Haworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, P., & Reid, J. B. (1994). Differences in risk factors and adjustment for male and female delinquents in Treatment Foster Care. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 3, 23–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, P., & Reid, J. B. (1998). Comparison of two community alternatives to incarceration for chronic juvenile offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 624–633.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chesney-Lind, M. (1988). Girls in jail. Crime and Delinquency, 34, 150–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chesney-Lind, M. (1989). Girls’ crime and women’s place: Towards a feminist model of female delinquency. Crime and Delinquency, 35, 5–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chesney-Lind, M., & Shelden, R. G. (1992). Girls, delinquency, and juvenile justice. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, P., & Brook, J. S. (1995). The reciprocal influence of punishment and child behavior disorder. In J. McCord (Ed). Coercion and punishment in long-term perspectives (pp. 154–164). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, N. J., Gottlieb, H., Kershner, J., & Wehrspann, W. (1985). Concurrent validity of the internalizing and externalizing profile patterns of the Achenbach Child Behaviors Checklist. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 724–728.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, P., Cohen, J., & Brook, J. S. (1995). Bringing in the sheaves, or just gleaning? A methodological warning. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 263–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, P., Cohen, J., Kasen, S., Velez, C. N., Hartmark, C., Johnson, J., et al. (1993). An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence - I. Age- and gender-specific prevalence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 851–867.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, P., Smailes, E., & Brown, J. (2000, October). Effects of childhood maltreatment on adult arrests in a general population sample. Paper presented at the National Institute of Justice Violence Against Women and Family Violence Conference, Washington, DC.

  • Cole, P. M., Teti, L. O., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2003). Mutual emotion regulation and the stability of conduct problems between preschool and early school age. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 1–18.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, P. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., Fox, N. A., Usher, B. A., & Welsh, J. D. (1996). Individual differences in emotion regulation and behavior problems in preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 518–529.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, P. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Smith, K. D. (1994). Expressive control during a disappointment: Variations related to preschoolers’ behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 30, 835–846.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Neppl, T., Kim, K. J., & Scaramella, L. (2003). Angry and aggressive behavior across three generations: A prospective, longitudinal study of parents and children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 31, 143–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, J., & Goldberg, A. (1999). Romantic relationships in adolescence: The role of friends and peers in their emergence and development. In W. W. Furman, B. B. Brown, & C. Feiring (Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence. New York: Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costello, E. J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and Development of Psychiatric Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 837–844.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cote, S., Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D., Zoccolillo, M., & Vitaro, F. (2002). Childhood behavioral profiles leading to adolescent conduct disorder: Risk trajectories for boys and girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1086–1094.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cote, S., Zoccolillo, M., Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D., & Vitaro, F. (2001). Predicting girls’ conduct disorder in adolescence from childhood trajectories of disruptive behaviors. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 678–684.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, T. N., Cohen, P., & Brook, J. (2001). Dramatic-erratic personality disorder symptoms: II. Developmental pathways from early adolescence to adulthood. Journal of Personality Disorders, 15, 336–360.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (1995). Relational aggression: The role of intent attributions, feelings of distress, and provocation type. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 313–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (1997). Engagement in gender normative versus nonnormative forms of aggression: Links to social-psychological adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 33, 610–617.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., Casas, J. F., & Mosher, M. (1997). Relational and overt aggression in preschool. Developmental Psychology, 33, 579–588.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710–722.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cross, S., & Madson, L. (1997). Models of the self: Self-constructs and gender. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 5–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cutler, S. E., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Accounting for sex differences in depression through female victimization: Childhood sexual abuse. Sex Roles, 24, 425–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R. J., Jackson, D. C., & Kalin, N. H. (2000). Emotion, plasticity, context and regulation: Perspectives from affective neuroscience. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 890–909.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R. J., Putnam, K. M., & Larson, C. L. (2000). Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation—A possible prelude to violence. Science, 289, 591–594.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., Andrews, D. W., & Crosby, L. (1995). Antisocial boys and their friends in early adolescence: Relationship characteristics, quality and interactional process. Child Development, 66, 139–151.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doyle, A. E., Beiderman, J., Monuteaux, M., Cohan, S. L., Schofield, H., & Faraone, S. V. (2003). Diagnostic threshold for conduct disorder in girls and boys. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191, 379–386.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrensaft, M. K., Cohen, P., Brown, J., Smailes, E., Chen, H., & Johnson, J. (2003). Intergenerational transmission of partner violence: A 20-year prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 741–753.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrensaft, M. K., Wasserman, G. A., Verdeli, H., Greenwald, S., Davies, M., & Miller, L. S. (2003). Maternal antisocial behavior, parenting practices, and behavior problems in boys at risk for antisocial behavior. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 12, 27–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ennett, S. T., & Bauman, K. E. (1994). The contribution of influence and selection to adolescent peer group homogeneity: The case of adolescent cigarette smoking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 653–663.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eppright, T. D., Kashani, J. H., Robison, B. D., & Reid, J. C. (1993). Comorbidity of conduct disorder and personality disorders in an incarcerated juvenile population. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1233–1236.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fantuzzo, J., Boruch, R., Beriama, A., Atkins, M., & Marcus, S. (1997). Domestic violence and children: Prevalence and risk in five major U.S. cities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 116–122.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farchaus-Stein, K. (1996). Affect instability in adults with a borderline personality disorder. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 10, 32–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feiring, C., & Furman, W. C. (2000). When love is just a four letter word: Victimization and romantic relationships in adolescence. Child Maltreatment, 5, 293–298.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Figueria-McDonough, J. (1985). Are girls different? Gender discrepancies between delinquent behavior and control. Child Welfare, 64, 273–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Figueria-McDonough, J., Barton, W. H., & Sarri, R. (1981). Normal Deviance: Gender similarities in adolescent subcultures. In M. Q. Warren (Ed.), Comparing female and male offenders (pp. 17–45). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., & Baron, L. (1986). Risk factors for child sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1, 43–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., Cornell, A. H., Barry, C. T., Bodin, S. D., & Dane, H. E. (2003). Callous-unemotional traits and conduct problems in the prediction of conduct problem severity, aggression, and self-report of delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 457–470.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., Kuper, K., Silverthorn, P., & Cotter, M. (1995). Antisocial behavior, somatization, and sensation-seeking behavior in mothers of clinic-referred children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 805–812.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galen, B. R., & Underwood, M. K. (1997). A developmental investigation of social aggression among children. Developmental Psychology, 33, 589–600.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giordano, P. C., Cernkovich, S. A., & Pugh, M. D. (1986). Friendships and delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 1170–1202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldsmith, H. H., & Gottesman, I. I. (1995). Heritable variability and variable heritability in developmental psychopathology. In M. F. Lenzenweger & J. J. Haugaard (Eds.), Frontiers of developmental psychopathology (pp. 5–43). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gore, S., Aseltine, R. H., & Colten, M. E. (1993). Gender, social-relational involvement, and depression. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 3, 101–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorman-Smith, D. (2003). Prevention of antisocial behavior in females. In, D. P. Farrington & J. W. Coid (Eds.), Early prevention of antisocial behavior (pp. 292–317). New York: Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenough, W. T., Black, J. E., & Wallace, C. S. (1987). Experience and brain development. Child Development, 58, 539–559.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, J., Simpson, J., & Gillis, A. R. (1987). Class in the household: A power-control theory of gender and delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 93, 788–816.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagedorn, J. M. (1998). People and Folks (2nd ed.). Chicago: Lake View.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 128–140.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hartup, W., & Stevens, N. (1997). Friendships and adaptation in the life course. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 355–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henggeler, S. W., Edwards, J., & Borduin, C. M. (1987). The family relations of female juvenile delinquents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 199–209.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henggeler, S. W., Melton, G. B., & Smith, L. A. (1992). Family preservation using Multisystemic therapy: An effective alternative to incarcerating serious juvenile offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 953–961.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henggeler, S. W., Melton, G. B., Smith, L. A., Schoenwald, S. K., & Hanley, J. H. (1993). Family preservation using Multisystemic treatment: Long-term follow-up to a clinical trial with serious juvenile offenders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 2, 283–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hops, H. (1995). Age- and gender-specific effects of parental depression: A commentary. Developmental Psychology, 31, 428–431.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hops, H., Davis, B., Leve, C., & Sheeber, L. (2003). Cross-generational transmission of aggressive parent behavior: A prospective, mediational examination. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 31, 161–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huston, A. C., & Alvarez, M. M. (1990). The socialization context of gender role development in early adolescence. In Montemayor, R., & Adams, G. R. (Eds.), From childhood to adolescence: A transitional period? Advances in adolescent development: An annual book series (Vol. 2., pp. 156–179). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S. (1984). How large are gender differences in aggression? A developmental meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 20, 772–736.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaffee, S. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., & Dickson, N. (2001). Predicting early fatherhood and whether young fathers live with their children: Prospective findings and policy reconsiderations. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 803–815.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janus, M. E., McCormack, A., Burgess, A. W., & Hartman, C. (1987). Adolescent runaways: Causes and consequences. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books/D. C. Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouriles, E. N., McDonald, R., Spiller, L., Norwood, W. D., Swank, P. R., Stephens, N., et al. (2001). Reducing conduct problems among children of battered women. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 69, 774–785.

    Google Scholar 

  • Junger-Tas, J., Terlouw, G., & Klein, M. W. (1994). Delinquent behavior among young people in the western world: First results of the international self-report delinquency study. New York: Kugler.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kagan, J. (1978). The growth of the child. New York: W. W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., Davies, M., & Baydar, N. (1990). The creation of interpersonal contexts: Homophily in dyadic relationships in adolescence and young adulthood. In L. N. Robins and M. R. Rutter (Eds.), Straight and devious pathways to adulthood (pp. 221–241). New York: Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J. G., & Widom, C. S. (1999). Childhood victimization, running away & delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 36, 347–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (1992). Overt and covert antisocial behavior: Child and family characteristics among psychiatric in patient children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 1, 3–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keenan, K., Loeber, R., & Green, S. (1999). Conduct disorder in girls: A review of the literature. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2, 3–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keenan, K., & Shaw, D. (1997). Developmental and social influences on young girls’ early problem behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 95–113.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keltner, D., & Kring, A. M. (1998). Emotion, social function, and psychopathology. Review of General Psychology, 2, 320–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall-Tackett, K. A., Williams, L. M., & Finkerlhor, D. (1993). Impact of sexual abuse on children: A review and synthesis of recent empirical studies. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 164–180.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P. A., Foster, C. L., Saunders, W. B., Stang, P. E., & Walters, E. E. (1997). Social consequences of psychiatric disorders, II: Teenage parenthood. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1405–1411.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Huges, M., Eshleman, S., et al. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1996). Presentation and course of major depressive disorder during childhood and later years of the life span. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35,705–715.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krueger, R. F., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Bleske, A., & Silva, P. A. (1998). Assortative mating for antisocial behavior: Developmental and methodological implications. Behavior Genetics, 28, 173–186.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kruttschnitt, C. (1993). Violence by and against women: A cooperative and cross-national analysis. Violence and Victims, 8, 253–270.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Bjorkqvist, K., & Peltonen, T. (1988). Is indirect aggression typical of females? Gender differences in aggressiveness in 11- to 12-year old girls. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 403–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Russo, M. F., Walker, J. L., & Piacentini, J. C. (1989). Personality characteristics of the mothers of children with disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 512–515.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laub, J. H., Nagin, D. S., & Sampson, R. J. (1998). Trajectories of change in criminal offending: Good marriages and the desistance process. American Sociological Review, 63, 225–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laursen, B., & Bukowski, W. M. (1997). A developmental guide to the organization of close relationships. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 21, 747–770.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laursen, B., & Collins, W. A. (1994). Interpersonal conflict during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 197–209.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leadbeater, B. J., Blatt, S. J., & Quinlan, D. M. (1995). Gender-linked vulnerabilities to depressive symptoms, stress, and problem behaviors in adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 5, 1–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leve, L. D., & Chamberlain, P. (2005). Girls in the juvenile justice system: Risk factors and clinical implications. In D. Pepler, K. Madsen, C. Webster, & K. Levine (Eds.), Development and treatment of girlhood aggression (pp. 191–215). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, D., Marziali, E., & Hood, J. (1997). Emotion processing in borderline personality disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185, 240–246.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, D. O., Yeager, C. A., Cobham-Portorreal, C. S., Klein, N., Showater, C., & Anthony, S. (1991). A follow-up of female delinquents: Maternal contributions to the perpetuation of deviance. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 197–201.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., & Keenan, K. (1994). Interaction between conduct disorder and its comorbid conditions: Effects of age and gender. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 497–523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1986). Family factors as correlates & predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and justice: An annual review of research (pp. 29–149). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loper, A. B., & Cornell, D. G. (1996). Homicide by girls. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 5, 321–333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luntz, B. K., & Widom, C. S. (1994). Antisocial personality disorder in abused and neglected children grown up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 670–674.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Suchman, N. E. (2000). Relational psychotherapy mother’s group: A developmentally informed intervention for at-risk mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 235–253.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lynam, D. R. (1996). Early identification of chronic offenders: Who is the fledgling psychopath. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 209–234.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (1990). Gender and relationships: A developmental account. American Psychologist, 45, 513–520.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magdol, L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Silva, P. A. (1998). Developmental antecedents of partner abuse: A prospective-longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 375–89.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magnusson, D. (1988). Individual development from an interactional perspective: A longitudinal study. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markovitz, H., Benenson, J., & Dolenszky, E. (2001). Evidence that children and adolescents have internal models of peer interactions that are gender differentiated. Child Development, 72, 879–886.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGee, R., Silva, P. A., & Williams, S. (1984). Behavior problems in a population of seven-year-old children: Prevalence, stability and types of disorder—A research report. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 25, 251–259.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, M. A., Alberts, J. K., Hecht, M. L., Trost, M. R., & Krizek, R. L. (2000). Adolescent relationships and drug use, (pp. 20–41). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (1993). “Life-course persistent” and “adolescence-limited” antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (1994). Natural histories of delinquency. In E. G. M. Weitekamp & H. J. Kerner (Eds.), Cross-national longitudinal research on human development and criminal behavior (pp. 3–61). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. A. (2001). Sex differences in antisocial behavior: Conduct Disorder, delinquency, and violence in the Dunedin Longitudinal Study. New York: Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muller, J., & Mihalic, S. (1999, June). Blueprints: A violence prevention initiative. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Fact Sheet, #110. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mumola, C. J. (2000, April). Incarcerated parents and their children. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers, D. G. (1999). Close relationships and the quality of life. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 376–393). New York: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1994). An interactive model for the emergence of gender differences in depression in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 519–534.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noller, P. (1994). Relationships with parents in adolescence: Process and outcome. In R. Montemayo & G. R. Adams (Eds.), Personal relationships during adolescence. Advances in adolescent development: An annual book series (Vol. 6, pp. 37–77). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oakley-Browne, M. A., Joyce, P. R., Wells, J. E., Bushnell, J. A., & Hornblow, A. R. (1989). Christchurch Psychiatric Epidemiology Study: II. Six month and other period prevalences of specific psychiatric disorders. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 23, 327–340.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Obeidallah, D. A., & Earls, F. J. (1999, July). Adolescent Girls: The role of depression and the development of delinquency. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice Research Preview.

    Google Scholar 

  • Offord, D. R., Boyle, M. C., & Racine, Y. A. (1991). The epidemiology of antisocial behavior in childhood and adolescence. In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 31–54). Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Offord, D. R., Boyle, M. H., Szatmari, P., Rae-Grant, N. I., Links, P. I., Cadman, D. T., et al. (1987). Ontario Child Health Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 832–836.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paris, J. (1997). Antisocial and borderline personality disorders: Two separate diagnoses or two aspects of the same psychopathology. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 38, 237–242.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R, & Stoolmiller, M. (1991). Replications of a dual failure model for boys’ depressed mood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 491–498.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pawlby, S. J., Mills, A., & Quinton, D. (1997a). Vulnerable adolescent girls: Opposite-sex relationships. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 909–920.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawlby, S. J., Mills, A., Taylor, A., & Quinton, D. (1997b). Adolescent friendships mediating childhood adversity and adult outcome. Journal of Adolescence, 20, 633–644.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pepler, D. J., & Craig, W. (1999). Aggressive girls: Development of disorder and outcomes. Lamarsh Center for Research on Violence and Conflict Resolution, Report #57, York University, Toronto, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phelps, R. J. (1982). Wisconsin juvenile female offender project. Madison, WI: Youth Policy and Law Center, Wisconsin Counsel on Juvenile Project.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puzzanchera, C., Stahl, A. L., Finnegan, T. A., Snyder, H. N., Poole, R. S., & Tierney, N. (2000, May). Juvenile Court Statistics 1997. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Center for Juvenile Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinton, D., Pickles, A., Maughan, B., & Rutter, M. (1993). Partners, peers, and pathways: Assortative pairing and continuities in conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 763–783.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reis, H. T. (1998). Gender differences in intimacy and related behaviors: Context and process. In D. J. Canary & K. Dindia (Eds.), Sex differences and similarities in communication: Critical essays and empirical investigations of sex and gender in interaction (pp. 203–231). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reis, H. T., Collins, W. A., & Berscheid, E. (2000). The relationship context of human behavior and development. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 844–872.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Renouf, A. G., & Harter, S. (1990). Low self-worth and anger as components of the depressive experience in young adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 293–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renouf, A. G., Kovacs, M., & Mukerji, P. (1997). Relationship of depressive, conduct and comorbid disorders in social functioning in childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 998–1004.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rind, B., Tromovitch, P., & Bauserman, R. (1998). A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of child sexual abuse using college samples. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 22–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L. N. (1966). Deviant children grown up. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L. N. (1986). The consequences of conduct disorder in girls. In D. Olweus, J. Block, & M. Radke-Yarrow (Eds.), Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior (pp. 385–414). Orlando, FL: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L. N., & Rieger, D. A. (1991). Psychiatric Clinics of North America. New York: Free.

    Google Scholar 

  • Romans, S. E., Martin, M., Gendall, K., & Herbison, G. P. (2002). Age of menarche: The role of some psychosocial factors. Psychological Medicine, 33, 933–939.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, H., Tesla, C., Kenyon, B., & Lollis, S. (1990). Maternal intervention in toddler peer conflict: The socialization of principles of justice. Developmental Psychology, 26, 994–1003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rossi, A. S. (1977). A biosocial perspective on parenting. Daedalus, 106, 1–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, R., Maughan, B., Pickles, A., Costello, B., & Angold, A. (2002). The relationship between DSM-IV oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: Findings from the Great Smoky Mountains Study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 365–373.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1978). Family, area and school influences in the genesis of conduct disorders. Book supplement to the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1, 95–113.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., & Quinton, D. (1984). Long-term follow-up of women institutionalized in childhood: Factors promoting good functioning in adult life. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2, 191–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1993). Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scahill, M. C. (2000, November). Female delinquency cases, 1997 (OJJDP Fact Sheet, #16). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlossman, S., & Cairns, R. B. (1993). Problem girls: Observations on past and present. In G. H. Elder, J. Modell, & R. Parke (Eds.), Children in time and place: Developmental and historical insights. New York: Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serbin, L. A., Peters, P. L., McAffer, V. J., & Schwartzman, A. E. (1991). Childhood aggression and withdrawal as predictors of adolescent pregnancy, early parenthood, and environmental risk for the next generation. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 23(3), 318–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sickmund, M. (1997). Offenders in juvenile court, 1995 (Bulletin). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, D. J. (1999). The developing mind: Toward a neurobiology of interpersonal experience. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silverthorn, P., & Frick, P. J. (1999). Developmental pathways to antisocial behavior: The delayed-onset pathway in girls. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 101–126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, R. G., & Blyth, D. (1987). Moving into adolescence: The impact of pubertal change and school context. New York: Aldine De Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, R. G., & Blyth, D. (1987b). Moving into adolescence: The impact of pubertal change and school context. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C., & Lloyd, B. (1978). Maternal behavior and perceived sex of infant: Revisited. Child Development, 49, 1263–1265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. J. (1995). Youth crime and conduct disorders: Trends, patterns and causal explanations. In, M. Rutter & D. J. Smith (Eds.), Psychosocial disorders in young people: Time trends and their causes (pp. 299–489). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, H. N. (1997, November). Juvenile Arrests 1996 (Juvenile Justice Bulletin). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, H. N. (2000, December). Juvenile Arrests 1999 (Juvenile Justice Bulletin). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stattin, H., & Magnusson, D. (1990). Pubertal maturation in female development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Wei, E. (1998). The precursors of young fatherhood and its effect on the delinquency career of teenage males. Journal of Adolescent Health, 22, 56–65.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Straus, M. A. (1999). The controversy over domestic violence by women: A methodological, theoretical, and sociology of science analysis. In X. B. Arriaga & S. Oskamp (Eds.), Violence in intimate relationships (pp. 17–44). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swartz, M., Blazer, D., George, L., & Winfield, I. (1990). Estimating the prevalence of borderline personality disorder in the community. Journal of Personality Disorders, 4, 257–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P., Freeman-Gallant, A., Lizotte, A. J., Krohn, M. D., & Smith, C. A. (2003). Linked lives: The intergenerational transmission of antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 171–184.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tieger, T. (1980). On the biological basis of sex differences in aggression. Child Development, 51, 943–963.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiet, Q. Q., Wasserman, G. A., Loeber, R., McReynolds, L. S., & Miller, L. S. (2001). Developmental and sex differences in types of conduct problems. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 10, 181–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E. (2003). Why socialization fails: The case of chronic physical aggression. In B. B. Lahey, T. E. Moffitt, & A. Caspi (Eds.), Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. (1993). Impact of child sexual abuse on females: Toward a developmental, psychobiological integration. Psychological Science, 4, 81–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wangby, M., Bergman, L. R., & Magnusson, D. (1999). Development of adjustment problems in girls: What syndromes emerge? Child Development, 70, 678–699.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wasserman, G. A., Miller, L. S., Pinner, E., & Jaramillo, B. (1996). Parenting predictors of early conduct problems in urban, high-risk boys. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(9), 1227–1236.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wasserman, G. A., & Seracini, A. M. (2000). Family risk factors and family treatments for early-onset offending. In R. Loeber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Child delinquents, development, intervention, and service needs (pp. 165–189). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, M., Zelkowitz, P., Feldman, R. B., Vogel, J., Heyman, M., & Paris, J. (1996). Psychopathology in offspring of mothers with borderline personality disorder: A pilot study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 41, 285–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Widom, C. S. (2000). Childhood victimization and the derailment of girls and women to the criminal justice system. In Research on Women and Girls in the Justice System: Plenary Papers of the 1999 Conference on Criminal Justice and Evaluation, Enhancing Policy and Practice Through Research (Vol. 3, pp. 27–36). Washington, DC.

  • Widom, C. S., & Kuhns, J. B. (1996). Childhood victimization and subsequent risk for promiscuity, prostitution and teenage pregnancy: A prospective study. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 1607–1612.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Widom, C. S., & Maxfield, M. G. (2001, February). An update on the “cycle of violence.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, D. A., Scott, K., Reitzel-Jaffe, D., Wekerle, C., Grasley, C., & Straatman, A. (2001). Development and validation of the Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 13, 277–293.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodward, L. J., & Fergusson, D. M. (1999). Early conduct problems and later risk of teenage pregnancy in girls. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 127–141.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C. (1993). Warriors and worriers: Gender and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 79–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zanarini, M. C., & Gunderson, J. G. (1997). Differential diagnosis of antisocial and borderline personality disorders. In D. M. Stoff, J. Brieling, & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 83–100). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zoccolillo, M. (1992). Co-occurrence of conduct disorder and its adult outcomes with depressive and anxiety disorders: A review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 547–556.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zoccolillo, M. (1993). Gender and the development of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 65–78.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Columbia University, New York

    Miriam K. Ehrensaft PhD

  2. Division of Child Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, 1051 Riverside Drive, Unit 47, New York, 10032

    Miriam K. Ehrensaft PhD

Authors
  1. Miriam K. Ehrensaft PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Miriam K. Ehrensaft PhD.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ehrensaft, M.K. Interpersonal Relationships and Sex Differences in the Development of Conduct Problems. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 8, 39–63 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-005-2341-y

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-005-2341-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation