Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the fundamental movement skills of 22 children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), from 6 to 12 years of age, to gender- and age-matched peers without ADHD and assess the effects of stimulant medication on the movement skill performance of the children with ADHD. Repeated measures analyses revealed significant skill differences between children with and without ADHD (p ≤ 0.001). Results from the stimulant medication trials indicated no significant effect of medication on the movement skill patterns of children with ADHD. It is concluded that children with ADHD may be at risk for developmental delays in movement skill performance. Potential factors underlying the movement skill difficulties are discussed, with suggestions for future research.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). The child behavior checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont.
Alexander, J. L. (1990). Hyperactive children: Which sports have the right stuff? The Physician And Sportsmedicine, 18(4), 105–108.
American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, (4th ed.). Text revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Anastopoulos, A., & Barkley, R. A. (1990). Counseling and training parents. In R. A. Barkley (Ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. (pp. 397–497). New York: Guilford.
Barkley, R. A. (2006). A theory of ADHD. In R. A. Barkley (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (3rd ed.) (pp. 297–334). New York: Guilford.
Berenyi, V. (1996). Coming to terms with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Health Savvy, 1(2), 16–21.
Beyer, R. (1999). Motor proficiency of boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 16, 403–414.
Bouffard, M., & Wall, A. E. (1990). A problem-solving approach to movement skill acquisition. In G. Reid (Ed.), Problems in Movement Control (pp. 283–316). Amsterdam: Elsevier. Science Publishers
Bouffard, M. Watkinson, E. J., Thompson, L. P., Causgrove Dunn, J. L., & Romanow, S. K. E.(1996). A test of the activity deficit hypothesis with children with movement difficulties. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 13, 61–73.
Brown, R. T., & Sawyer, M. G. (1998). Medications for school-age children. New York: Guilford.
Burton, A. W., & Miller, D. E. (1998). Movement skill assessment. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Chacko, A., Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, E., Greiner, A., Vallano, G., Bukstein, O., et al. (2005). Stimulant medication effects in a summer treatment program among young children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 249–257.
Christiansen, A. S. (2000). Persisting motor control problems in 11- to 12-year-old boys previously diagnosed with deficits in attention, motor control and perception (DAMP). Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 42, 4–7.
Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 37–46.
Conners, C. K. (1997a). Conners Global Index-Parent version. North Tonawanda, NY: Multihealth Systems.
Conners, C. K. (1997b). Conners Global Index-Teacher version. North Tonawanda, NY: Multihealth Systems.
Connor, D. F. (2006). Stimulants. In R. A. Barkley (Ed.). (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (3rd ed.) (pp. 608–647). New York: Guilford.
Cote, J., Baker, J., & Abernathy, B. (2003). From play to practice: A developmental framework for the acquisition of expertise in team sports. In J. L. Starkes, & K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sports (pp. 89–133). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Cote, J., & Hay, J. (2002). Children’s involvement in sport: A developmental perspective. In J. M. Silva, & D. E. Stevens (Eds.), Psychological foundations of sport. (pp. 484–502). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Denckla, M. B., Rudel, R. G., Chapman, C., & Krieger, J. (1985). Motor proficiency in dyslexic children with and without attentional disorders. Archives of Neurology, 3, 231–233.
DiMaio, S., Grizenko, N., & Joober, R. (2003). Dopamine genes and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A review. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 28(1), 27–38.
Donders, J. (1997). A short form of the WISC-III for clinical use. Psychological Assessment, 9, 15–20.
Doyle, S., Wallen, M., & Whitmont, S. (1995). Motor skills in Australian children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Occupational Therapy International, 2, 229–240.
DuPaul, G. J., Barkley, R. A., & Connor, D. F. (1998). Stimulants. In R. A. Barkley (Ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (2nd ed.) (pp. 510–551). New York: Guilford.
Ericsson, K. A. (2003). Development of elite performance and deliberate practice: An update of the expert performance approach. In J. L. Starkes, & K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sports (pp. 49–83).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Gillberg, C. (2003). Deficits in attention, motor control, and perception: A brief review. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 88, 904–910.
Greenhill, L. L., Halperin, J. M., & Abikoff, H. (1999). Stimulant medications. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 503–512.
Grizenko, N., Kovacina, B., Ben Amor, L., Schwartz, G., Ter-Stepanian, M., & Joober, R. (2006). Relationship between response to methylphenidate treatment in children with ADHD and psychopathology in their families. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 47–53.
Grizenko, N., & Pawliuk, N. (1994). Depression and hopelessness in children with disruptive behavior disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 39, 277–282.
Hallahan, M., & Rosenthal, R. (1996). Statistical power: Concepts, procedures, and applications. Behavioral Research Therapy, 34, 489–499.
Harvey, W. J., Fagan, T., & Kassis, J. (2003). Enabling students with ADHD to use self-control in physical activities. Palaestra, 19(3), 32–35.
Harvey, W. J., & Reid, G. (1997). Motor performance of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A preliminary investigation. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14, 189–202.
Harvey, W. J., & Reid, G. (2003). A review of fundamental movement skill performance and physical fitness of children with ADHD. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 20, 1–25.
Harvey, W. J., & Reid, G. (2005). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Ways to improve APA research. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 22, 1–20.
Haynes, S. N. (2001). Clinical applications of analogue behavioral observation: Dimensions of psychometric evaluation. Psychological Assessment, 13, 73–85.
Hickey, G., & Fricker, P. (1999). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, CNS stimulants and sport. Sports Medicine, 27, 11–21.
Ho, T. P., Luk, E. S. L., Leung, P. W. L., Taylor, E., Lieh-Mak, F., & Bacon-Shone, J. (1996). Situational versus pervasive hyperactivity in a community sample. Psychological Medicine, 26, 309–321.
Hodge, S. R., Murata, N. M., & Porretta, D. L. (1999). Enhancing motor performance through various preparatory activities involving children with learning disabilities. Clinical Kinesiology, 53(4), 76–82.
Jensen, P. S., Kettle, L., Roper, M. T., Sloan, M. T., Dulcan, M. K., Hoven, C., et al. (1999). Are stimulants overprescribed? Treatment of ADHD in four U.S. communities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 797–804.
Kaplan, B. J., Wilson, B. N., Dewey, D., & Crawford, S. G. (1998). DCD may not be a discrete disorder. Human Movement Science, 17, 471–490.
Keogh, J. (1978). Movement outcomes as conceptual guidelines in the perceptual-motor maze. Journal of Special Education, 12, 321–329.
Knights, R. M., & Hinton, G. G. (1969). The effects of methylphenidate (ritalin) on the motor skills and behavior of children with learning problems. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 148, 643–653.
Kowalski, E. M., & Sherrill, C. (1992). Motor sequencing of boys with learning disabilities: Modeling and verbal rehearsal strategies. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 9, 261–272.
Lahey, B. B., Applegate, B., McBurnett, K., Biederman, J., Greenhill, l., Hynd, G. W., et al. (1994). DSM-IV field trials for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1673–1685.
Lazarus, J. C. (1990). Factors underlying inefficient movement in learning disabled children. In G. Reid (Ed.), Problems of movement control (pp. 241–282). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Litner, B. (1999). Understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and learning disabilities: Considerations for child and youth care workers. Journal of Child and Youth Care Work, 14, 29–42.
Luk, S. L., Leung, P. W. L., & Yuen, J. (1991). Clinic observations in the assessment of pervasiveness of childhood hyperactivity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 32, 833–850.
Miyahara, M., Möbs, I., & Doll-Tepper, G. (1995). Subtypes of clinically identified children with hyperkinetic syndrome based upon perceptual motor function and classroom behaviors. In I. Morisbak, & P. E. Jorgensen (Eds.), 10th International Symposium on Adapted Physical Activity: Quality of life through adapted physical activity: A lifespan concept (pp. 278–286). Oslo, Norway: Ham Trykk A/S.
Miyahara, M., Möbs, I., & Doll-Tepper, G. (2001). Severity of hyperactivity and the comorbidity of hyperactivity with clumsiness in three sample sources: School, support group and hospital. Child: Care, Health and Development, 27, 413–424.
National Institute of Mental Health (1998). NIMH DISC-IV. Joy and William Ruane Center to identify and treat mood disorders. Washington, DC: Columbia University Division of Child Psychiatry.
Pedersen, S. J., Surburg, P. R., Heath, M., & Koceja, D. M. (2004). Fractionated lower extremity response time performance in boys with and without ADHD. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 21, 315–329.
Pelham, W. E., McBurnett, K., Harper, G. W., Milich, R., Murphy, D. A., Clinton, J., et al. (1990). Methylphenidate and baseball playing in ADHD children: Who’s on first? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 130–133.
Piek, J. P., Pitcher, T. M., & Hay, D. A. (1999). Motor coordination and kinaesthesis in boys with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 41, 159–165.
Pitcher, T. M., Piek, J. P., & Hay, D. A. (2003). Fine and gross motor ability in males with ADHD. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 45, 525–535.
Rapport, M. D., & Kelly, K. L. (1991). Psychostimulant effects on learning and cognitive function: Findings and implications for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 61–92.
Reid, G., Harvey, W. J., Lloyd, M., & Bouffard, M. (2002). A pilot study of self-directed motor learning in children with DCD. Paper presentation about the microgenetic analysis of the overhand throwing of boys with and without developmental coordination disorder. The DCD-V International Conference: Mechanisms, Measurement, and Management. Banff, Alberta, Canada.
SAS (2001). SAS System for Windows, release version 8.02. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.
Scahill, L., & Schwab-Stone, M. (2000). Epidemiology of ADHD in school-age children. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 9, 541–555.
Sheppard, D. M., Bradshaw, J. L., Georgiou, N., Bradshaw, J. A., & Lee, P. (2000). Movement sequencing in children with Tourette’s syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Movement Disorders, 15, 1184–1193.
Stevens, J. (1996). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Swanson, J. M., Cantwell, D., Lerner, M., McBurnett, K., & Hanna, G. (1991). Effects of stimulant medication on learning in children with ADHD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24(4), 219–230.
Swanson, J. M., McBurnett, K., Wigal, T., Pfiffner, L. J., Lerner, M. A., Williams, L., et al. (1993). Effect of stimulant medication on children with attention deficit disorder: A “review of reviews.” Exceptional Children, 60(2), 154–162.
Szatmari, P., Offord, D. R., & Boyle, M. H. (1989). Correlates, associated impairments and patterns of service utilization of children with attention deficit disorder: Findings from the Ontario Child Health Study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 205–217.
Thomas, J. R., & Nelson, J. K. (2001). Research methods in physical activity (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Thomson, L. M., Pangrazi, R. P., Friedman, G., & Hutchison, N. (2003). Childhood depressive symptoms, physical activity and health related fitness. Journal of Sport Psychology, 25, 419–439.
Tripp, G., & Luk, S. L. (1997). The identification of pervasive hyperactivity: Is clinic observation necessary? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 219–234.
Ulrich, D. A. (1985). Test of gross motor development. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Ulrich, D. A. (2000). Test of gross motor development (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Vickers, J. N., Rodrigues, S. T., & Brown, L. N. (2002). Gaze pursuit and arm control of adolescent males diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and normal controls: Evidence of a dissociation in processing visual information of a short and long duration. Journal of Sport Sciences, 20, 201–216.
Wade, M. G. (1976). Effects of methylphenidate on motor skill acquisition of hyperactive children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 443–447.
Wall, A. E. (1990). Skill acquisition research with persons with developmental disabilities: Research design considerations. In G. Reid (Ed.), Problems in movement control (pp. 283–316). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Wall, A. E. (2004). The developmental skill-learning gap hypothesis: Implications for children with movement difficulties. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 21, 197–218.
Wall, A. E., McClements, J., Bouffard, M., Findlay, H., & Taylor, M. J. (1985). A knowledge-based approach to motor development: Implications for the physically awkward. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 2, 21–42.
Wall, A. E., Reid, G., & Harvey, W. J. (2007). Interface of the knowledge-based and ecological task analysis approaches. In W.E. Davis & D. Broadhead (Eds.), Ecological approach to analyzing movement (pp. 259–277). Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL.
Wechsler, D. (1991). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children (3rd ed.): Manual . San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Wilens, T. E., & Biederman, J. (1992). The stimulants. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15, 191–223.
Wilens, T. E., & Spencer, T. J. (2000). The stimulants revisited. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 9, 573–603.
Yun, J., & Ulrich, D. A. (2002). Estimating measurement validity: A tutorial. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 19, 32–47.
Zagar, R., & Bowers, N. D. (1983). The effects of day on problem-solving and classroom behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 20, 337–345.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Harvey, W.J., Reid, G., Grizenko, N. et al. Fundamental Movement Skills and Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Peer Comparisons and Stimulant Effects. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35, 871–882 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9140-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9140-5