Background
Theoretical framework
Methods
Econometric model
Dependent variables
Independent variables of interest
Results
Descriptive statistics for the independent variables
Variable | Poor | Middle | Rich |
N = 4,294 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Row (Col.) | Row (Col.) | Row (Col.) | ||
NHIS
| ||||
Owned | 42.9 (67.1) | 19.4 (68.7) | 37.7 (72.9) | 100 |
45.0 (32.9) | 21.8 (31.3) | 33.2 (27.1) | 100 | |
Not Owned | (100) | (100) | (100) | |
Residence
| ||||
Rural | 77.1 (86.3) | 16.7 (51.9) | 6.2 (12.6) | 100 |
Urban | 17.2 (13.7) | 21.8 (48.1) | 61.0 (87.4) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Religion
| ||||
Others | 65.6 (35.6) | 16.0 (24.0) | 18.4 (18.0) | 100 |
Christianity | 46.9 (64.4) | 20.0 (76.0) | 33.1 (82.0) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Marital Status
| ||||
Not Married | 48.6 (32.1) | 26.2 (48) | 25.2 (30.1) | 100 |
Married | 54.1 (67.9) | 15.0 (52) | 30.9 (69.9) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Occupation
| ||||
Not working | 45.4 (15.0) | 24.1 (22.2) | 30.5 (18.2) | 100 |
Working | 53.7 (85.0) | 17.7 (77.8) | 28.6 (81.8) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Partner’s occupation
| ||||
Primary | 87.5 (9.6) | 9.6 (20.9) | 2.9 (45.9) | 100 |
Secondary | 23.9 (76.3) | 30.7 (25.0) | 45.4 (4.6) | 100 |
Tertiary | 23.1 (14.1) | 16.9 (54.1) | 60.0 (49.5) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Education
| ||||
No education | 80.6 (51.4) | 12.0 (21.2) | 7.4 (8.5) | 100 |
Primary | 61.6 (23.9) | 20.3 (21.8) | 18.1 (12.7) | 100 |
At least secondary | 27.8 (24.7) | 23.1 (56.9) | 49.1 (78.9) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Partner’s education
| ||||
No education | 85.9 (48.4) | 8.5 (14.2) | 5.5 (5.6) | 100 |
Primary | 38.8 (50.3) | 21.7 (83.0) | 39.5 (93.1) | 100 |
At least secondary | 44.1 (1.3) | 32.2 (2.8) | 23.7 (1.3) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Ecological zone
| ||||
Coastal | 27.1 (14.7) | 23.7 (35.6) | 49.2 (48.1) | 100 |
Savannah | 81.2 (33.6) | 8.3 (49.9) | 10.5 (39.8) | 100 |
Forest | 45.6 (51.7) | 24.4 (14.5) | 30.0 (12.1) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Frequency of listening to radio
| ||||
Not at all | 69.8 (25.7) | 14.9 (15.2) | 15.3 (10.1) | 100 |
Less than once a Week | 50.1 (29.4) | 21.8 (35.5) | 28.1 (29.8) | 100 |
At least once a week | 46.7 (44.9) | 18.6 (49.4) | 34.7 (60.1) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Water source
| ||||
Pipe | 5.3 (1.0) | 13.3 (5.1) | 81.4 (20.2) | 100 |
Others | 48.0 (99.0) | 21.0 (94.9) | 31.0 (79.8) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Contraceptive usage
| ||||
No modern contraceptive | 43.3 (75.5) | 19.8 (71.7) | 36.9 (73.9) | 100 |
Uses modern | 44.6 (24.5) | 22.1 (28.3) | 33.3 (26.1) | 100 |
Contraceptive | (100) | (100) | (100) | |
Healthcare decision making
| ||||
Alone | 46.3 (19.0) | 20.3 (25.3) | 33.4 (24.4) | 100 |
Not alone | 54.7 (81.0) | 16.7 (74.7) | 28.6 (75.6) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Household purchase decision making
| ||||
Alone | 50.7 (17.9) | 19.6 (20.9) | 29.7 (18.7) | 100 |
Not alone | 53.4 (82.1) | 16.9 (79.1) | 29.7 (81.3) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Decision making on visits
| ||||
Alone | 48.9 (20.2) | 18.9 (23.7) | 32.0 (23.5) | 100 |
Not alone | 53.9 (79.8) | 17.0 (76.3) | 29.0 (76.5) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) | ||
Shared toilet facility
| ||||
No | 1.7 (0.6) | 8.4 (5.9) | 90.0 (58.3) | 100 |
With other household only | 53.2 (99.4) | 22.9 (94.1) | 23.9 (41.7) | 100 |
(100) | (100) | (100) |
Maternal healthcare utilisation by wealth status
Maternal healthcare utilisation by wealth and zonal distribution
Place of delivery | ANC visit | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Home | Health facility | Total | ˂4 | ≥4 | Total | |
Coastal Poor | 43.6 | 56.4 | 100 | 17.9 | 82.1 | 100 |
Coastal Middle | 29.0 | 70.9 | 100 | 11.9 | 88.1 | 100 |
Coastal Rich | 5.7 | 94.3 | 100 | 3.2 | 96.8 | 100 |
Forest Poor | 38.9 | 61.0 | 100 | 21.2 | 78.8 | 100 |
Forest Middle | 18.4 | 81.6 | 100 | 13.6 | 86.4 | 100 |
Forest Rich | 3.1 | 96.9 | 100 | 4.1 | 95.9 | 100 |
Savannah Poor | 45.1 | 54.9 | 100 | 18.8 | 81.2 | 100 |
Savannah Middle | 16.2 | 83.8 | 100 | 10.3 | 89.7 | 100 |
Savannah Rich | 3.3 | 96.7 | 100 | 2.7 | 97.4 | 100 |
Rural Poor | 45.2 | 54.8 | 100 | 20.4 | 79.6 | 100 |
Rural Middle | 28.3 | 71.7 | 100 | 10.8 | 89.2 | 100 |
Rural Rich | 9.1 | 90.9 | 100 | 2.6 | 97.4 | 100 |
Urban Poor | 27.9 | 72.1 | 100 | 13.7 | 86.3 | 100 |
Urban Middle | 14.8 | 85.2 | 100 | 14.4 | 85.6 | 100 |
Urban Rich | 3.7 | 96.3 | 100 | 3.6 | 96.4 | 100 |
Results of econometric models (logistic regression)
Logistic regression results on ANC visit
ANC | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Poor | 95% CI | Middle | 95% CI | Rich | 95% CI |
Health Insurance
| ||||||
Not-subscribed | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Subscribed | 0.067**(0.028) | 1.76–2.87 | 0.045 (0.031) | 2.12–4.76 | 0.017 (0.013) | 1.14–4.14 |
Residence
| ||||||
Rural | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Urban | 0.026 (0.039) | 1.10–2.68 | −0.034 (0.026) | 0.98–1.64 | −0.012 (0.015) | 0.28–2.73 |
Religion
| ||||||
Others | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Christianity | −0.045 (0.028) | 0.67–1.34 | 0.034 (0.034) | 0.46–2.51 | 0.005 (0.022) | 0.59–4.21 |
Marital Status
| ||||||
Not Married | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Married | 0.067*(0.031) | 1.41–2.44 | 0.080**(0.031) | 0.74–2.86 | 0.021 (0.016) | 0.75–3.16 |
Occupation
| ||||||
Not working | 1,1 | 1,1 | ||||
Working | 0.104**(0.044) | 1.11–2.26 | 0.095**(0.036) | 1.75–4.31 | 0.049**(0.018) | |
Partner’s occupation
| ||||||
Primary | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Secondary | 0.048 (0.032) | 1.15–2.65 | −0.002 (0.031) | 2.31–3.99 | 0.010 (0.027) | 0.23–2.30 |
Tertiary | 0.129***(0.029) | 1.27–3.87 | 0.027 (0.036) | 1.54–2.56 | 0.019 (0.025) | 0.65–5.42 |
Education
| ||||||
No education | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Primary | −0.009 (0.035) | 0.86–1.69 | 0.012 (0.043) | 0.77–1.75 | −0.030 (0.025) | 0.63–2.71 |
At least secondary | −0.001 (0.037) | 0.91–3.01 | 0.049 (0.040) | 0.94–1.88 | 0.005 (0.017) | 0.97–1.72 |
Partner’s education
| ||||||
No education | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Primary | −0.019 (0.040) | 0.80–1.64 | −0.029 (0.049) | 0.82–1.66 | 0.040 (0.035) | 1.21–3.22 |
At least secondary | 0.023 (0.036) | 0.98–1.96 | −0.007 (0.039) | 0.78–1.84 | 0.041 (0.033) | 2.12–4.21 |
Ecological zone
| ||||||
Coastal | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Savannah | 0.015 (0.039) | 0.58–1.37 | 0.015 (0.039) | 0.49–1.52 | 0.001 (0.022) | 0.82–2.45 |
Forest | −0.033 (0.030) | 0.46–1.02 | −0.033 (0.030) | 0.64–1.73 | −0.005 (0.012) | 0.94–1.63 |
Frequency of listening to radio
| ||||||
Not at all | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Less than once a Week | 0.042 (0.041) | 1.00–1.84 | 0.042 (0.041) | 2.02–4.89 | −0.013 (0.017) | 2.42–5.21 |
At least once a week | 0.106***(0.036) | 1.83–3.28 | 0.106**(0.036) | 1.86–3.72 | 0.009 (0.012) | 2.01–4.21 |
Water source
| ||||||
Pipe | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Others | 0.281 (0.154) | 0.45–2.14 | 0.089**(0.033) | 0.65–2.71 | 0.009 (0.015) | 0.72–2.71 |
Contraceptive usage
| ||||||
No modern contraceptive | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Uses modern Contraceptive | 0.064**(0.025) | 1.43–2.70 | 0.065**(0.024) | 0.95–2.63 | 0.000**(0.012) | 0.52–2.61 |
Birth order | −0.004*(0.032) | 0.33–2.01 | 0.001 (0.154) | 1.22–3.28 | 0.024 (0.031) | 0.74–3.82 |
Healthcare decision making
| ||||||
Alone | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Not alone | −0.050 (0.028) | 1.21–3.43 | −0.052 (0.030) | 1.63–3.21 | −0.015 (0.011) | 1.82–2.73 |
Household purchase decision making
| ||||||
Alone | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Not alone | 0.080 (0.042) | 2.32–4.51 | 0.070 (0.041) | 2.41–4.22 | −0.016 (−0.013) | 0.54–2.82 |
Decision making on visits
| ||||||
Alone | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Not alone | 0.021 (0.036) | 1.32–4.12 | 0.075*(0.038) | 0.56–2.61 | 0.004 (0.016) | 0.82–2.64 |
Shared toilet facility
| ||||||
No | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
With other household only | −0.026 (0.036) | 2.11–4.24 | −0.066 (0.053) | 2.31–4.46 | −0.026*(0.012) | 2.14–4.62 |
Public | −0.004 (0.032) | 0.97–2.54 | −0.051 (0.049) | 1.11–3.01 | −0.013 (0.012) | 1.85–3.22 |
Hosmer and Lemeshow’s Gof | 9 | 12.7 | 9.7 |
Variable | Poor | 95% CI | Middle | 95% CI | Rich | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Health Insurance
| ||||||
Not-subscribed | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Subscribed | 0.139***(0.037) | 1.42–2.13 | 0.074*(0.039) | 1.00–2.10 | 0.048*(0.017) | 1.02–3.18 |
Residence
| ||||||
Rural | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Urban | 0.033 (0.053) | 1.66–3.21 | 0.168***(0.035) | 1.63–3.44 | 0.041 (0.022) | 1.60–5.92 |
Religion
| ||||||
Others | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Christianity | 0.087*(0.042) | 1.16–1.78 | 0.076 (0.047) | 0.75–1.80 | 0.029 (0.021) | 0.71–2.97 |
Marital Status
| ||||||
Not Married | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Married | 0.043 (0.040) | 1.08–1.71 | 0.044 (0.038) | 0.70–1.44 | −0.001 (0.015) | 0.70–2.96 |
Highest Education
| ||||||
No education | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Primary | 0.075 (0.469) | 1.09–1.84 | 0.024 (0.058) | 0.98–1.15 | −0.041 (0.024) | 0.82–3.01 |
At least Secondary Education | 0.171***(0.477) | 1.53–2.80 | 0.094 (0.056) | 1.01–2.75 | 0.011 (0.019) | 1.12–2.84 |
Partner’s Education
| ||||||
No education | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Primary | −0.067 (0.051) | 1.06–1.87 | 0.108 (0.078) | 2.13–3.08 | 0.043 (0.039) | 1.88–2.76 |
At least secondary Education | −0.018 (0.045) | 0.93–1.60 | 0.094 (0.068) | 1.75–2.37 | 0.053 (0.034) | 2.71–3.98 |
Frequency of listening to radio
| ||||||
Not at all | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Less than once a week | −0.019 (0.050) | 0.98–1.66 | −0.065 (0.054) | 2.07–3.55 | −0.007 (0.021) | 0.63–2.75 |
At least once a week | 0.102**(0.045) | 1.40–2.26 | −0.041 (0.052) | 1.89–2.33 | 0.020 (0.018) | 2.71–4.87 |
Ecological Zone
| ||||||
Coastal | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Savannah | 0.086 (0.053) | 0.85–1.65 | −0.015 (0.071) | 0.82–1.99 | 0.026 (0.023) | 1.53–3.44 |
Forest | 0.049 (0.043) | 0.73–1.39 | 0.017 (0.040) | 2.14–3.11 | 0.027*(0.013) | 2.31–5.44 |
Occupation
| ||||||
Not working | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Working | 0.047 (0.049) | 0.90–1.60 | 0.070 (0.049) | 1.78–2.56 | 0.021 (0.018) | 2.55–4.21 |
Partner’s occupation
| ||||||
Primary | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Secondary | 0.048 (0.048) | 0.86–1.60 | −0.034 (0.043) | 2.76–3.44 | 0.072 (0.040) | 0.74–2.55 |
Tertiary | 0.073 (0.056) | 1.42–3.09 | 0.020 (0.057) | 1.99–3.76 | 0.068 (0.041) | 2.11–4.31 |
Water source
| ||||||
Pipe | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Others | −0.001 (0.119) | 1.93–2.01 | −0.081 (0.082) | 2.12–3.71 | −0.020 (0.014) | 0.98–3.11 |
Contraceptive usage
| ||||||
No modern contraceptive | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Uses modern Contraceptive | 0.022 (0.036) | 1.18–1.87 | 0.009 (0.039) | 1.53–2.76 | −0.017 (0.015) | 1.77–3.21 |
Birth order | 0.018 (0.028) | 0.78–1.98 | 0.025 (0.087) | 2.33–3.81 | 0.038 (0.051) | 0.84–3.22 |
Healthcare decision making
| ||||||
Alone | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Not alone | 0.025 (0.468) | 2.54–2.98 | −0.049 (0.047) | 0.63–1.21 | −0.016 (0.015) | 2.01–4.72 |
Household purchase decision making
| ||||||
Alone | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Not alone | −0.023 (0.048) | 1.53–2.07 | 0.087 (0.057) | 0.74–1.52 | 0.015 (0.021) | 0.82–2.60 |
Decision making on visits
| ||||||
Alone | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
Not alone | 0.004 (0.049) | 1.32–1.96 | −0.014 (0.053) | 0.69–2.11 | 0.001 (0.015) | 2.03–4.82 |
Shared toilet facility
| ||||||
No | 1,1 | 1,1 | 1,1 | |||
With other household only | 0.010 (0.048) | 0.77–1.01 | 0.038 (0.070) | 0.52–1.74 | −0.019 (0.015) | 0.93–3.11 |
Public | 0.045 (0.044) | 0.98–1.23 | 0.013 (0.067) | 1.55–3.02 | −0.032 (0.016) | 1.71–3.85 |
Hosmer and Lemeshow’s Gof | 9.9 | 13.5 | 7.3 |