Multiple trauma management in mountain environments - a scoping review

The injury patterns of multiple trauma vary according to the terrain (e.g. grassy or rocky ground), protective equipment and techniques (e.g. helmet, rope, belaying) and the activity. For instance, critical injuries in climbing often involve the pelvis and chest [7], canyoning accidents the lower and upper extremities [8], and mountain biking, winter, and aviation sport injuries the head and thoracolumbar vertebral column [9‐11].

Accidents in the mountains create challenges that are not found in most urban scenarios. Trauma victims can be difficult to locate and extricate because of the terrain. Bad weather can impede rescue efforts and limit the delivery of on-site patient care. Environmental factors may demand deviation from normal patterns of care provided in an urban environments. Evacuation to definitive care can be greatly delayed due to travel over difficult terrain and bad weather. Medical response in mountainous terrain can also be greatly delayed compared to an urban setting. Mountain victims may not receive care within the same time frame as in an urban setting because of the location. This article focuses on helicopter-supported mountain rescue missions because in many developed countries (e.g. Austria > 98%), as well as in some developing countries, the large majority of multiple trauma patients are rescued by HEMS. Ground-based mountain rescue services are still necessary during conditions that prevent helicopter flights, such as bad weather, darkness, when night vision goggles are not available, and high altitude. Technical possibilities and human resources may be very limited during ground rescue missions. In ground rescue missions, only basic equipment may be available. The physical and psychological challenges may be extraordinary. Trauma mortality is not necessarily higher with prehospital times longer than 60 min except for patients in haemorrhagic shock [12, 13]. The goal is to provide the best possible care throughout the rescue effort, given the unique situation and based on the principles described in these recommendations.

The safety of the rescuers is the first principle of rescue (Fig. 1). Rescuers should be able to move safely in hazardous mountain terrain. Helmets can reduce the likelihood and severity of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Mountain rescuers should wear helmets to protect against TBI and should use additional safety equipment to prevent injuries. On-site patient care may be hazardous to both patients and rescuers, because of steep or slippery terrain, rock-, ice- or snowfall, avalanches, and low visibility. Rescuers must consider potential hazards including transport to and from the scene, access to the scene, clothing and equipment for the rescuers, and reliable communications with other agencies and team members. Rescuers must also use personal protection from body fluid exposures and be prepared to handle immediate life threatening conditions. The decision to ‘stabilise on site and prepare for transport’ versus a ‘grab and go’ approach will necessarily be made on a case-by-case basis. In hazardous conditions, it may be necessary to evacuate a casualty from the accident site as rapidly as possible before any medical treatment has been given, even if there are critical injuries [14].

In contrast to patients with multiple trauma in military operations, patients in the mountains with multiple trauma very rarely sustain life threatening limb haemorrhage that can be treated with relatively simple measures, such as a tourniquet. Rather, these patients often sustain blunt injuries with bleeding from internal organ injuries that can only be treated surgically (e.g. by damage control surgery or interventional radiology).

In patients with multiple trauma, control of massive external haemorrhage with methods such as compression, haemostatic agents, or tourniquets, takes priority over other components of ABCDE because massive external haemorrhage leads to death most rapdily [15]. In tactical or military medicine this is known as the critical bleeding or the eXsanguination ABCDE approach [16] (crABCDE or XABCDE).

Maintaining an open airway is the second essential step in the treatment of trauma patients. Oxygen is recommended for trauma patients, especially at high altitude (above 2500 m), in order to preserve normoxia [17]. Available oxygen may be limited, especially during long or technically difficult rescues. A suction device must be ready at all times [18]. An obstructed airway requires immediate airway management. To open the airway, the initial action should be a jaw thrust, avoiding excessive movement of the cervical spine. Indications for advanced airway management include apnoea, agonal respirations, severe thoracic trauma, and TBI with seriously impaired gas exchange [18]. Advanced airway management prior to extrication by hoist or long line carries a risk of dislodging the airway device or hypoventilating the patient [19]. Providing a definitive airway can be difficult. Video laryngoscopy with a bougie may facilitate tracheal intubation [20]. Prehospital tracheal intubation should only be performed by experienced rescuers. In austere environments, use of supraglottic devices may be superior to tracheal intubation [21]. When a definitive airway is required and tracheal intubation is not possible, creation of a surgical airway with a cricothyrotomy may be necessary if supraglottic airway insertion and bag-valve mask ventilation fail. Ventilation with a bag-valve mask or a supraglottic airway is often as effective as tracheal intubation [22]. Immediately after establishment of an advanced airway (a tracheal tube or supraglottic airway), capnography should be used to confirm correct placement and to achieve normal ventilation. In prolonged rescue missions, bag-valve mask ventilation should only serve as a bridge to a protected airway.

Immobilisation of the c-spine is not necessarily recommended for all blunt trauma patients (Table 2) [24‐26] and should not be performed in neurologically intact patients with penetrating trauma [23, 27‐33]. A clinical decision rule, such as NEXUS or the Canadian C-spine Rule, should be used to avoid secondary spinal injury [33‐36]. Prehospital clearance of the c-spine in children (≤8 years, although not uniformly defined) is not recommended [37‐40]. Methods to immobilise the c-spine may include manual in-line stabilisation, SAM splints, or cervical collars [41]. Cervical collars must be applied correctly [42], with special attention to maintaining venous return [23, 43‐47]. Spinal injury is covered under Disability.

Normoxia and normocapnia are optimal to support physiological organ function. Ventilatory support is desirable if the patient is not able to maintain normoxia with supplementary oxygen or if hypercapnia may have deleterious effects, as in a hypoventilating patient with TBI. With the lowest possible oxygen flow to preserve supplies, aim for oxygen saturation ≥94% (88% in patients with chronic pulmonary disease). Avoid hyperoxia, as it may decrease survival [48]. Once an advanced airway is established, normal ventilation should be achieved with lung-protective ventilation according to ideal body weight, monitored by end-tidal carbon dioxide measurement (capnometry) and pulse oximetry [49]. Acute respiratory failure after severe trauma may be caused by a severe chest injury, such as flail chest, lung contusions or lacerations, or tension pneumothorax. Acute respiratory failure may also occur after TBI or spinal trauma, because of respiratory paralysis, aspiration, or airway obstruction secondary to decreased level of consciousness.

Multiple trauma is frequently associated with blunt thoracic trauma [50]. The main symptoms of blunt thoracic trauma are pain and difficulty breathing. Initial assessment should include pulse oximetry and assessment of breathing to identify respiratory distress [51]. Severe pain from fractured ribs may compromise ventilation. Effective analgesia and oxygen administration may improve ventilation and oxygenation. A noncritical pneumothorax or haemothorax may remain undiagnosed without risk to the patient. Consideration must be given to the expansion of trapped gas in the pneumothorax if the helicopter must gain substantial elevation during the evacuation [52]. If oxygenation does not improve or deteriorates and severe respiratory or circulatory compromise occurs, it is critical to diagnose a tension pneumothorax and to perform an immediate decompression of the pleural cavity [53]. Needle decompression in the second or third intercostal space in the midclavicular line can be rapidly and easily performed as the first step in treatment, but has a considerably higher failure rate than tube thoracostomy [54]. Tube thoracostomy is superior to needle decompression, although it is not without risks [53, 55]. Pigtail catheters are increasingly used because they are minimally invasive and have a lower complication rate than tube thoracostomy. They may become the prehospital intervention of choice in uncomplicated pneumothorax [56, 57]. The prehospital use of a minithoracostomy, a skin incision followed by blunt finger dissection without a trocar, may have the lowest complication rate, but can create a sucking chest wound in a nonventilated patient [58]. Massive haemothorax may cause both severe respiratory distress and significant blood loss, necessitating immediate evacuation to a trauma centre. In several HEMS systems, thoracostomies are performed routinely in anaesthetized patients receiving positive pressure ventilation. In remote mountain emergency operations, during a long rescue, a thoracostomy may be required as a lifesaving procedure without positive pressure ventilation. If a thoracostomy is performed on a patient without a tension pneumothorax, negative pressure ventilation (spontaneous breathing) may lead to accumulation of a simple pneumothorax with respiratory compromise.

Severe haemorrhage is the second leading cause of death, after TBI [59]. Decreased cardiac output and blood pressure reduce tissue oxygen delivery.

At least one large bore IV is required in a multiple trauma patient who will require large volumes of fluid. Intraosseous volume replacement is slower. When fluid and drug administration are necessary, IO access should be obtained if IV access cannot be established after three attempts.

Rapid volume replacement (Table 4) can restore cardiac preload and mitigate the effects of haemorrhage, if provided judiciously. Helicopters have transported uncrossmatched O negative packed red blood cells (PRBCs) to mountain rescue and other prehospital scenes. No transfusion reactions have been reported. Improved outcomes have not been reported in civilian rescue [108‐111], but are common in military medicine [112]. In a TBI patient without critical bleeding, vasopressors may help maintain cerebral perfusion pressure if MAP decreases during prolonged transport. Norepinephrine is the preferred vasopressor. It should be given via a large peripheral vein, Uses of fluids and other adjuncts for haemorrhagic shock are shown in Table 4 [61, 66, 113].

Careful positioning and transport of patients with spinal injury in rough terrain may be challenging, but is important to avoid secondary injury. Spinal injury can involve only the bony spinal column or can be associated with spinal cord injury. Secondary insults result from movement, hypoxia, hypotension, and haematoma compressing the spinal cord. There are questions about the efficacy and safety of traditional spinal immobilisation for all trauma patients [149‐152]. A more selective approach may be better [149, 153, 154]. Spinal motion restriction in the mountains may interfere with life saving interventions and may delay transport to definitive care. Spinal motion restriction is necessary for any patient with an altered level of consciousness [155]. A clinical decision rule should be used to identify patients at risk of significant spinal injury [33‐36].

Manual in-line stabilisation with a ‘trapezius squeeze’ hold is as effective as a cervical collar to protect the c-spine during movement and during tracheal intubation [156]. Cervical collars are not necessary for all patients. They do not eliminate all movement. Adverse effects, including interference with breathing and venous compression may contribute to physiologic compromise of a patient with multiple trauma [25, 44, 157, 158]. Spinal motion restriction can be achieved using a combination of manual in-line stabilisation, head blocks, and hard or soft transfer devices [159]. Unstable patients with multiple trauma should be handled as little as possible. Logrolling is of limited diagnostic value in most circumstances. Use of a manual vertical lift or a scoop stretcher limits spinal motion [160]. A vacuum mattress is a stable transfer device that provides comfort and protects against pressure necrosis during prolonged transport [161‐164]. For extrication and transport, a vacuum mattress should be used in a horizontal rescue bag or stretcher. When horizontal extrication is not possible, as in narrow crevasses, a Kendrick Extrication Device (KED) or newer devices such as NEXT can be used to stabilise the spine in a sitting position [165].

Prehospital assessment of the type and severity of multiple trauma should guide treatment, including the choice of destination, especially in life-threatening cases. Physical examination may be limited by adverse environmental conditions [166] and cannot be performed reliably without some degree of exposure. Exposure may cause or worsen hypothermia, a common condition in trauma patients that contributes to coagulopathy and acidosis [166‐168]. History and physical exam alone have a low accuracy in detecting injuries in blunt trauma, missing almost half of injuries, even in a hospital environment [169]. Prehospital injury assessment by physicians can miss up to one-third of significant injuries [170]. The value of exposure should be weighed against the risk of hypothermia. Examination should be performed sequentially, by body region, avoiding heat loss and preserving insulating clothing.

Injuries of the extremities are the most common cause of evacuation by organised mountain rescue services in Europe and the US. In a survey from Scotland, 50% of the survivors suffered from lower limb trauma [2]. Similarly, in the US, sprains, strains, and fractures were the most common medical incidents amongst recreational wilderness medicine expeditions, with fractures being the most frequent cause for evacuation [171]. In a multiple trauma patient, extremity injuries may be associated with additional life-threatening injuries. Lifesaving interventions, folllowing crABCDE, should precede other care. Extremity injuries that are not life threatening, should be immobilised only after the patient has been stabilised [14].

Although splinting and immobilisation have been described since ancient times, accepted practise has been established more by time than by high quality randomised controlled trials. Benefits of fracture reduction and immobilisation include pain control, decreased blood loss, prevention of conversion from closed to open fracture, and protection from further injury [172]. Early immobilisation, reduction, and splinting reduce pain in patients with closed fractures treated in the emergency department. Splinting can cause harm if not done correctly. Some interventions, including traction splints for femur fractures, may cause morbidity even when properly applied. In patients with multiple trauma, contraindications to traction splinting for femur fractures are common. Contraindications include non-midshaft location and associated knee or tibia-fibula fractures. Most patients with multiple trauma should be extricated on vacuum mattresses or spine boards [173, 174]. Spine boards have hard surfaces and should only be used for extrication. They are not suitable for transport. Spine boards can cause tissue necrosis even when used for relatively short time periods. Patients with hypotension or hypothermia may be at increased risk of tissue necrosis.

Immobilisation of extremity injuries should follow standard splinting procedures, including the use of sufficient padding, immobilising the joints above and below the injury, and neurovascular checks before and after splinting. Traction splinting for midshaft femur fractures should be used only if needed for pain control, haemorrhage reduction, or for immobilisation if simple splinting does not suffice. The choice of splinting device is subject to many factors including the part of the body to be splinted, cost, weight, compatibility with other rescue equipment, and regional preferences (Table 5) [175]. Whilst there have been no randomised comparisons of splinting devices,vacuum splints have been proven effective and, despite their weight, have been widely adopted [163, 165, 176, 177].

Multiple trauma patients in the mountains should receive adequate analgesia. Analgesia decreases acute and long-term physiological and psychological responses to the stress of trauma [178, 179], increases comfort, and facilitates evacuation. Depending on training and licensure, mountain rescuers should be well versed in various modalities for pain reduction [178, 180]. Approaches to analgesia for trauma patients in the mountains vary widely amongst countries [178]. This is the result of differing professions and skill levels of medical providers, diverse laws and regulations, and large variations in transport times, especially with HEMS as opposed to ground rescue.

Nonpharmacologic interventions for acute pain in the mountains may include distraction and hypnosis. Most evidence is based on case reports. A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that distraction techniques, especially virtual reality and hypnosis, were moderately effective for pain relief in adults undergoing procedures for burn wound care [181]. Minor pain from trauma, is usually amenable to conservative treatment. Guidelines have been published by the Wilderness Medical Society for ‘PRICE’ therapy [180].

Hypothermia is often associated with trauma [198, 199] and may increase mortality. For trauma patients, prevention of heat loss and rewarming can be critical. Prehospital recognition of hypothermia can be challenging. Clinical signs of hypothermia may be unreliable when there are coexisting conditions and when minimally invasive temperature measurement is not possible [200]. If a suitable thermometer is not available, core temperature can be estimated using the Swiss staging system [201]. The ideal prehospital thermometer should be easy to handle, accurate in all environmental conditions, and able to reflect small temperature changes rapidly. A good example is a thermistor-based tympanic probe designed for field use in cold environments (Table 8) [200]. The most accurate method of core temperature measurement is an oesophageal probe in the lower third of the oesophagus. This technique is only advisable when the airway has been secured.

A systematic review that assessed different types of insulation and active warming methods for use in a ‘hypothermia wrap’ concluded that there is a lack of prehospital randomised controlled trials with large sample sizes to provide strong recommendations regarding the most effective treatment in hypothermia [203]. It is not clear whether wet clothes should be removed before applying a tightly fitting vapour barrier [204, 205]. Wilderness Medical Society guidelines suggest cutting off wet clothing when a vapour barrier is not available or when the patient is at high risk of continued cooling [206]. The use of a vapour barrier, non-breathable waterproof material, to reduce evapourative and convective heat loss, is most effective when the vapour barrier, made of thick material or containing trapped air, (e.g. bubble wrap), is combined with thick insulating material [207‐209].

Sources of external heat include heat packs (electrical or chemical), hot water bottles, heat blankets (chemical or electrical), and forced warm air. External heat should be used to prevent heat loss and for rewarming when endogenous heat production is decreased, because shivering is impaired or absent. Shivering is suppressed or abolished in patients with moderate or severe hypothermia, and in patients multiple trauma, even if they are not hypothermic. The use of external heat sources in mildly hypothermic patients without trauma reduces peripheral cold stress and shivering [209]. External heat also decreases the cardiovascular and respiratory stress of shivering and increases thermal comfort. Overall, external heat is recommended. Heat transfer is most efficient when external heat is applied to the axillae, chest, and back [210]. Exothermic chemical heat packs should be used cautiously if combined with supplemental oxygen. Higher oxygen levels can intensify the heat production, potentially causing thermal burns [211]. Intravenous fluids should be warmed to 40 °C. Portable battery-powered intravenous fluid warmers are the most practical heating devices. Caution is warranted in selecting the device. Most devices currently on the market are incapable of heating adequate amounts of cold fluids to 40 °C [212]. A temporary, warm microenvironment can be created by using a lightweight, rapidly deployed shelter. to decrease heat loss. Use of a warm environment also increases fine motor coordination for the rescuers.

A patient with multiple trauma should be transported as rapidly as possible to a high-level trauma centre. Transport decisions for a patient with multiple trauma in the mountains should be coordinated with assertive management in the field and should be made early in order to ensure rapid, definitive in-hospital care. A helicopter should transport a medically qualified team and equipment to the scene [213]. During transport, continuous monitoring and uninterrupted treatment should be continued. A lightweight, stable stretcher should be used. The patient should not be moved in a vertical position, because this may cause hypotension especially in a patient with significant haemorrhage. Helicopters provide gentler and more stable transport than ground ambulances. Gentle transport is especially advantageous for a patient with a spinal injury or haemodynamic instability [214, 215]. Shorter transport times improve outcomes for trauma patients in shock. Air transport may improve survival compared with ground rescue in patients with TBI [216]. Patients with multiple trauma and TBI should be transported by air when this minimises the time to definitive care. With short distances, helicopter transport may not save time compared to ground ambulance transport and may not improve outcomes [217‐219]. Helicopter transport may minimise prehospital time and the length of exposure to austere conditions compared to ground transport. However, in the mountains, availability of helicopter rescue may be limited by weather, low visibility, high altitude, and sometimes by other technical considerations. The potential benefits of air rescue should be carefully weighed against the risks. Helicopters may provide opportunities to reach distant trauma centres within a reasonable time, bypassing local smaller hospitals [220, 221]. In densely populated, highly developed areas, such as the European Alps, most locations are within a reasonable distance from a high-level trauma centre (i.e. 15-20 min flight time). This is usually not the case in less densely populated and less developed areas. The benefits of air rescue should be balanced against the inherent risks, especially when flight conditions may be hazardous.

Point of care ultrasound (POCUS) is a key method for the initial assessment of patients with suspected trauma in the emergency department (Fig. 2) [222]. Trauma ultrasound (US) can be performed on helicopters [223] and in ambulances [224]. Ultrasound can be useful in trauma patients [225, 226], because it may help to guide treatment and the choice of destination hospital [227]. An operator should consider whether the results of POCUS are likely to change management. Use of POCUS should not delay arrival to hospital unless the results are critically important as a decision tool for initiating a lifesaving intervention. Improved survival with the use of POCUS has not yet been reported.

Some limitations should be noted. Multiple trauma most often occurs in an urban setting. Most studies address this environment. In mountain areas, high quality evidence regarding treatment of multiple trauma is scarce. This discrepancy was also highlighted by a PubMed literature search on June 23rd 2020. Of 34,055 entries identified with the search term ‘multiple trauma,’ there were only 15 with the search term ‘multiple trauma alpine.’ We expanded the literature search by skimming the reference lists of the articles selected through the PubMed search. We cannot be sure that important studies were not missed with this approach.

A scoping review is not conducted as systematically or in as great a depth as a systematic review, although it still allows development of evidence-based recommendations through a rigorous and transparent approach. In this review, we focused on helicopter-supported mountain rescue missions, mostly because in many developed countries (e.g. Austria > > 98%), as well as in some developing countries, the large majority of multiple trauma patients are rescued by HEMS. Some diagnostic and treatment options presented in this article may be mainly of academic interest (e.g. REBOA, regional anaesthesia, ultrasound). However, our intention was to present an up-to-date approach with all treatment options available worldwide and practiced in different prehospital systems. To date, some treatment options may only be used in a few highly specialized centres, but with technological progress the availability may spread quickly to other systems.

Because there is limited evidence, some of the recommendations rely mainly on expert opinion, at best supported by extrapolation of clinical data to prehospital care in mountain environments.