Molecular genetics
Since the identification in 1993 of mutations of the SOD1 gene as being responsible for some forms of autosomal dominant FALS [
8], more than 30 other genes linked to ALS have been identified [
9].
The identification of TDP-43 protein as a major component of the neuronal inclusions of both ALS and fronto-temporal dementia (FTD) not only provided pathological evidence that these apparently distinct conditions constitute a disease spectrum but also led to the identification of a mutation of TARDBP gene as responsible for ~4 % of FALS cases. Subsequent studies demonstrated that mutations in the TARDBP gene may be responsible not only for FALS and a small percentage of SALS cases, but also for FTD, FTD-ALS and ALS-FTD cases [
10,
11]. Interestingly, a recent study and review of the literature, demonstrated a predominant temporal lobe involvement and semantic dementia phenotype in a high percentage of FTD patients with this mutation [
12]. Mutations in TDP-43 and in the fused in sarcoma genes (FUS) [
13], both RNA-binding proteins and sharing functional homologies, have highlighted the importance of RNA processing in ALS pathogenesis [
14,
15]. Recently, mutations in Matrin 3 (MATR3), an RNA- and DNA-binding protein that interacts with TDP-43 and earlier described as a cause of distal myopathy [
16], have been identified as a cause of FALS [
17], providing further evidence of the role of aberrant RNA processing in motor neuron degeneration.
Discovered in 2011 [
18,
19], the C9orf72 repeat expansion represents not only the most common genetic cause of FALS of European descent (more than one-third), but also accounts for a significant percentage of apparently sporadic ALS cases (~7 %). Moreover, C9orf72 repeat expansions account for many familial FTD cases (~25 %) and genetically explains the overlap between these two clinical syndromes [
6,
20]. Although the most frequent phenotypes are ALS, the behavioral variant FTD (bvFTD) or ALS/FTD the presentations associated with C9orf72 repeat expansion may be extremely heterogeneous, in regard to disease progression rate, neuropsychiatric, behavioural and motor features [
21]. The potential role of C9orf72 repeat expansions in other neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson Disease (PD) or atypical parkinsonism is still to be elucidated [
22]. A recent study revealed intermediate 20–30 repeat expansions in 4.3 % of patients presenting with non-classical atypical parkinsonism with FTD-like dementia or without dementia and with an upper MND-like phenotype [
23], suggesting a potential pathogenetic role for intermediate repeat sizes, in line with some earlier reports [
24‐
26]. C9orf72 repeat expansions have also been suggested by recent studies as a possible genetic cause of Huntington disease phenocopy syndrome, further expanding its potential spectrum of presentation [
27‐
29].
Although the mechanism leading to neurodegeneration in C9orf72 expansions is not fully understood [
21], potential mechanisms include loss of C9orf72 protein and function, RNA toxicity and sequestration of RNA-binding proteins [
30], or alternatively toxicity from the dipeptide repeat (DPR) proteins, which are the pathologic hallmark of C9orf72 expansion-related neuronal inclusions [
31].
Importantly, the identification of C9orf72-related ALS has encouraged scientists to search for other repeat-expansions. While ATXN-2 (SCA2) and ATXN-1 (SCA1) PolyQ intermediate expansions have been previously reported to be independently associated with an increased risk for ALS [
32‐
34], co-occurrence of ALS and SCA1 within a family carrying an intermediate ATXN-1 poly-Q expansion has been recently reported, reinforcing the putative pathogenic link between the two disorders [
35].
Further evidence of association between MND and FTD has been more recently provided by the demonstration that loss of function (LoF) mutations of the TBK1 gene, encoding the TANK-binding kinase 1, causes a dominant form of ALS and FTD which could potentially account for up to 4 % of FALS cases [
36,
37]. Mutations would result in an impaired TBK1 interaction with optineurin and sequestosome-1 (also known as ubiquitin-binding protein p62), both implicated in ALS pathogenesis [
38,
39]. All these genes are involved in one common pathway of autophagy regulation [
36,
37].
An even broader range of clinical presentations has been recently related to mutations in the coiled-coil-helix-coiled-coil-helix domain containing 10 (CHCHD10) gene, encompassing not only ALS without cognitive impairment, ALS/FTD or FTD (~1 % of cases), but also parkinsonism, cerebellar ataxia and mitochondrial myopathy [
40‐
43]. These findings support the hypothesis that mitochondrial dysfunction may be implicated in the pathogenesis of ALS and several other neurodegenerative disorders [
44].
Recently, identification of putative mutations in the profilin 1 (PFN1) [
45] and TUBA4A [
46] genes has indicated that defects in neuronal cytoskeleton architecture may also contribute to MND pathogenesis.
PFN1 mutations were initially identified using an exome-sequencing approach in 2.6 % of FALS cases [
45]. A mutational analysis of the PFN1 gene was carried out in a Catalan cohort of 42 FALS and 423 SALS patients [
47]. No PFN1 mutations were identified. This is consistent with other negative studies in other populations [
48‐
51], suggesting that PFN1 is not a major ALS-causing gene.
An excess of patient variants (7/635) in TUBA4A gene was first identified by an exome-wide burden analysis study of rare variants in FALS index cases [
46]. A second study identified four novel TUBA4A variants with predicted deleterious effects in a cohort of 1106 SALS of Italian origin, supporting the role of TUBA4A gene in ALS [
52]. However, further confirmative and functional studies are needed before any individual TUBA4A variant can be implicated in ALS [
53].
During the last few years, several genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have been used not only in order to identify new risk loci but also to discover genetic variants that may influence ALS phenotype, for example age at onset or prognosis. Although most of these associations still need replication [
7], a recent study confirmed that the UNC13A rs12608932 is not only a risk factor for ALS in the Spanish population, but would also appear to be a modifying factor for survival and disease progression rate [
54]. This is consistent with previous reports [
55‐
58].