Background
The adequacy and safety of blood supply is a major public health challenge in the world [
1,
2]. There is an ongoing debate over the family/replacement donation (FRD) policy influencing both shortage and safety of blood supply [
3‐
5]. FRD, also called mutual donation, occurs when family members are required to donate blood to replace each unit used by their friend or relative [
6]. Currently, the FRD is legitimate and considered to be indispensable to the transfusion services in many countries with the limited resources [
7‐
9]. Although this type of blood donation may provide short-term solutions for dealing with the shortage of blood supply [
10], it increases public distrust in voluntary blood donation and affects the quality and safety of donated blood [
11] . Phasing out the FRD is one of the targets in a global framework for action to achieve 100% voluntary non-remunerated blood donation (VNRBD) developed by the World Health Organization and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies [
9].
A nationwide ban on the FRD went into effect on April 1, 2018 in China. With the “more donors, more blood “ belief, it was believed that banning the FRD would cause serious consequences related to the shortage of blood supply [
8,
12]. However, a phenomenon of “fewer donors, more blood” for the plateletpheresis donation has been emerging in Guangzhou Blood Center and Chengdu Blood Center since the implement of the FRD ban in China, even though there is no substantial difference in the publicity and recruitment of blood donation between before and after the FRD ban in the two blood centers. To date, no reports relevant to the trend of plateletpheresis donations before and after a nationwide ban on family/replacement donation were found. Therefore, it is necessary to quantify the evidence-based trend of the plateletpheresis donation and the potential contributing factors to this trend before and after the FRD ban in China.
In present study, we examined a model-based trend of the apheresis platelet units donated before and after the FRD ban using two independent full samples in China with a pseudo-panel data approach followed by a piecewise linear mixed model.
Methods
Study population and study design
Based on the availability of the data, we used two independent full samples between October 1, 2012 – September 30, 2019 from Guangzhou Blood Center, the second largest blood center in China and Chengdu Blood Center, the largest blood centers in Western China, which were named as “GZ set” and “CD set” at the individual level, respectively. The GZ and CD sets consisted of 135,851 and 82,129 plateletpheresis donors, respectively. We enrolled the donors with an age of 18 ~ 60 years old, weight ≥ 50 kg for male and ≥ 45 kg for female, systolic blood pressure 90 ~ 140 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure 60 ~ 90 mmHg, pulse 60 ~ 100 beats/min, normal body temperature, platelet counts before donation 150 ~ 450 × 109/L, and no any other health conditions according to the China national standard for the eligible donor selection criteria (GB 18467–2011). All data used in the present study were de-identified.
We chose 5.5 years and 1.5 years before and after April 1, 2018, respectively, to set our investigation time window with a six-month interval as a cross-section, generating a total of 14 repeated cross-sections with 11 and 3 cross-sections before and after the ban, respectively. Based on the GB 18467–2011, a donor may donate up to a total of 24 plateletpheresis collections during a 12-month rolling period. Thus, some plateletpheresis donors may appear more than once across the 14 cross-sections, but not all donors appear in every cross-section. Therefore, there were some different degrees of the correlations of the data across 14 cross-sections, and our datasets presented a pseudo-panel structure [
13].
Measurements of outcome variable and covariates
The records for the total amount of the platelets donated by each donor within each cross-section, grouping covariates – gender, birth year, and blood donation history (see detailed information below), as well as the variable –family/replacement plateletpheresis donation (yes vs. no) were extracted from the archived blood donation documents in both blood centers. When a blood donor came to donate blood and assigned his donated blood to a specific patient on the waiting list, his/her donation was marked as FRD. The outcome variable at the cohort (i.e., cell) level within the pseudo-panel datasets (see detailed information below) was defined as average plateletpheresis units per donor in each cell.
Construction of pseudo-panel datasets
The pseudo-panel data approach is actually a solution to transform the individual-level cross-sectional data into the group-level data (i.e., pseudo-panel data) such that the typical longitudinal models can be applied to efficiently and consistently estimate the change of the interested outcome variable over time [
13]. This approach has been increasingly applied to public health [
14,
15].
According to the methods described in the literature [
16,
17], we constructed two pseudo-panel datasets from our GZ and CD data by grouping three time-invariant variables - gender, birth year, and blood donation history. Other potential covariates such as ethnicity, occupation, and education with large proportions of missing data were excluded from the analyses. Briefly, individual platelet donors were first classified based on gender that had two categories – male and female. To balance the size of each cohort (≥100, named as large cohort) and the number of large cohorts [
16] within our pseudo-panel datasets, we defined birth year as three categories – “1952–1974”, “1975–1984”, and “1985–2001”. The variable blood donation history was coded as 4 levels – “None” (i.e., the blood donor had never donated blood before the current cross-section, also called no history of donations), “Whole Blood Donation Only” (i.e., the blood donor had donated whole blood only before the current cross-section, abbreviated to “WB”), “Apheresis Platelet Donation Only” (i.e., the blood donor had donated apheresis platelet only before the current cross-section, abbreviated to “PLT”), and “Both WB and PLT Donations” (i.e., the blood donor had donated both whole blood and apheresis platelet before the current cross-section, abbreviated to “Both”). The individuals were then further divided by these two variables, generating 2 × 3 × 4 = 24 cohort groups across the 14 cross-sections, i.e., 24 × 14 = 336 cells for each of two pseudo-panel datasets. The generated each cohort group had common gender, birth year, and blood donation history. To reduce the measurement error [
17], we removed the cells with less than 30 individual donors in each dataset to generate two final pseudo-panel datasets, named as “overall Guangzhou pseudo-panel set” (abbreviated to “overall GZ set”) (
n = 330 cells) and “overall Chengdu pseudo-panel set” (abbreviated to “overall CD set”) (
n = 316 cells), respectively, for further analyses. More detailed information about the summaries of the constructed pseudo-panel datasets is presented in Additional file
7.
Our study was actually an observational study using pseudo-panel approach to analysis the data [
13‐
15]. Thus, we used the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) (Additional file
1) statement to ensure standardization and enhance the quality of the reporting [
18].
Statistics
For the individual-level data, we used two-tailed independent t-tests (α = 0.05) to compare total number of donors, total number of donations, and total apheresis platelet units (U), average plateletpheresis donations per donor, and average apheresis platelet units (U) per donor between before and after the ban (also called “after-before mean difference”). To compare two after-before mean differences between groups within each covariate, we applied two-tailed Z-test (Z = (mean difference1-mean difference2)/sqrt (se12 + se22), α = 0.05).
For overall GZ pseudo-panel set, we plotted outcome values (i.e., average apheresis platelet units per donor per cell) from each cohort group that had common gender, birth year, and blood donation history versus time (i.e., 14 cross-sections) as well as overall average outcome values from all 24 cohort groups versus time to visualize whether the trend of the outcome over time is linear or non-linear. Given that generalized linear mixed model and mixed-generalized ordered logit model have been successfully applied to analyze the trend of the outcome variable (proportion or probability) over time within a pseudo-panel dataset [
14,
19], for our pseudo-panel dataset with a continuous outcome variable, we applied a linear mixed model for modelling the linear trend, or modelling the non-linear trend using a piecewise linear mixed model with the defined time (i.e., cross-section) breakpoint(s) based on the above-mentioned visualization [
20]. We conducted a model selection starting from an unadjusted model (i.e., model 1 – pure time trend model without any covariates) to an adjusted model (i.e., model 2 = model 1 + significant covariates), and then to a final model (i.e., model 3 = model 2 + significant interaction terms). To compare two raw regression coefficients within the same final model, we used one-tailed Z-tests [Z = abs(β
2-β
1)/sqrt (SE
12 + SE
22), α = 0.05].
The assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity for piecewise linear mixed effects models were examined by visualizing marginal (for fixed effects only) and conditional (for both fixed and random effects) Pearson residual plots.
For five-fold cross-validation of the final model, the data were randomly split into 5 roughly equal-sized subsets using SAS PROC SURVEYSELECT procedure, the final model was fitted to the 4 subsets of the data using SAS PROC MIXED procedure with the STORE statement. The prediction error – Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of the fitted model to predict the fifth subset using SAS PROC PLM procedure was calculated. This procedure was repeated 5 times such that each subset was used for testing exactly once and an average RMSE of 5-fold cross-validation was calculated by using the formula: SQRT((RMSE12 + RMSE22 + … + RMSE52)/5) and further compared with that from the model-fitting using the full sample to determine if there was an over-fitting issue.
To test for replication of the trend of the overall outcome mean over time obtained from the overall GZ set, we applied the same methods as described above to the independent pseudo-panel dataset from Chengdu Blood Center, i.e., overall CD set.
To detect the potential effect of family/replacement plateletpheresis donations on the model-based trend of the average apheresis platelet units per donor over time identified from the overall GZ and CD sets, we removed the family/replacement plateletpheresis donations in each of the first 11 cross-sections (all donations after the ban were voluntary) from the overall individual-level data. Then we re-grouped the remaining individuals (81,801 and 48,768 voluntary plateletpheresis donors remaining from the GZ and CD sets, respectively) to generate two nested pseudo-panel subsets, named as “voluntary GZ subset” (n = 300 cells) and “voluntary CD subset” (n = 284 cells), respectively. Finally, we used the same methods as described above to fit the piecewise linear mixed models for both subsets.
All data management and statistical analyses described above were conducted with R (R Development Core Team) and SAS v9.4 (SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina).
Discussion
In the present study, we observed that total number of donations and total apheresis platelet units after the ban were significantly higher than those before the ban whereas total number of plateletpheresis donors showed the opposite in both Guangzhou and Chengdu Blood Centers. These findings quantitatively confirmed an emerging phenomenon of “fewer donors, more blood (platelet units)” that we preliminarily observed in the field since the implement of the FRD ban in China under the circumstance of no substantial difference in the publicity and recruitment of blood donation between before and after the FRD ban in the two blood centers, which breaks the belief of “more donors, more blood (platelet units)” in the past plateletpheresis donation practice. It must be noted that we did not include whole blood donors/donations in our analyses due to that 1) the minimum interval between whole blood donations in China is 180 days (GB 18467–2011) and within a single cross-section (6-month interval) in our present study, the whole blood donors had no repeated whole blood donation(s); and 2) almost 100% whole blood had been donated by the VNRBDs during the 5 years prior to the FRD ban in China, and thus, the FRD ban would be expected to have no significant influence on the whole blood donations.
Furthermore, using a pseudo-panel data approach, we observed that the average apheresis platelet units per donor presented a horizontal line over time before the ban, and then followed a significantly positive linear trend over time after the ban from both GZ and CD datasets. To our knowledge, this study is the first to report such a two-piecewise linear trend of the average apheresis platelet units per donor over time before and after a nationwide FRD ban. Such a change of the donation trend might be related to a difference of the blood donors’ composition between before and after the ban. For apheresis platelet donations, before the FRD ban, the FRDs were dominated by the first-time blood donors, and they generally did not donate blood repeatedly. After the FRD ban, although the total number of blood donors had decreased, the proportion of the first-time blood donors was also decreased but more blood donors repeatedly donated. One possible reason for the plateletpheresis donors donating more blood and more often was that as the total number of blood donors was decreased, the average time for staff to communicate and serve with each blood donor was increased. Thus, the VNRBDs were more likely to experience a better blood donation service, which might increase the donors’ donations. We cannot exclude the possibility of other reasons that could enhance the loyalty and commitment of these donors. More rigorous studies are needed for further clarification.
Our modeling results also revealed that male donors and donors with plateletpheresis donation history had an increased baseline outcome and a significant outcome change over time after the ban. These findings are consistent with those from our individual-level data, i.e., both male donors and donors with plateletpheresis donation history had significantly larger increases of both average apheresis platelet units per donor and average total number of plateletpheresis donations per donor compared to their peer groups (i.e., female donors or donors with other donation history), which may be defined as improved plateletpheresis donation behavior. Therefore, a possible mechanism underlying the two-piecewise linear trend of the outcome over time before and after the ban could be the FRD ban-related improved plateletpheresis donation behavior. Evidence showed that the improved donation behavior can be related to the increased altruism [
21,
22] and social responsibility of blood donors [
21] whereas repeat donors had a higher return donation rate with altruistic reasons [
22]. On the other hand, studies also demonstrated that male donors more frequently donated blood [
22,
23] and women were less likely to donate blood [
24,
25] probably due to the pregnancy- and/or lactation-based absence [
24]. However, whether the ban can increase altruism and social responsibility of male donors and/or repeat donors is unknown. Another possible mechanism could be directly related to the implement of the FRD ban. Our findings indicated that compared to voluntary plateletpheresis donors, family/replacement donors donated significantly smaller volume of apheresis platelet, and therefore, removing family/replacement donors from the data led to the trend of outcome over time before the ban being changed from a horizontal line to a weak and positive linear line. Taken together, the two-piecewise linear trend of outcome over time may be an integrative result from two ban-related factors: the implement of the FRD ban and the improved donation behavior of male donors and/or donors with platelet donation history after the ban.
Systematic reduction of the outcome for the model as a whole in the samples from Chengdu Blood Center compared to that from Guangzhou Blood Center is consistent with our previous study, in which we reported that the average blood donation volume per resident was higher in Guangdong, whose capital city is Guangzhou, than that in Sichuan, whose capital city is Chengdu (3.06 U for Guangdong vs. 2.56 U for Sichuan) [
26].
Our study has several strengths. The use of an independent external dataset (CD dataset) to replicate the findings from the GZ dataset significantly increased the external validity of our findings. The internal validity of our results was improved by the application of five-fold cross-validation. As mentioned above, our datasets presented a pseudo-panel structure, thus, the use of a pseudo-panel data approach maximized the reliability and validity of our analysis. Our study also has some limitations. Only three covariates were available for our modeling in both GZ and CD datasets, thus, we cannot completely rule out the possible confounding effects of the unmeasured covariates. However, by calculating the linear mixed- effects model’s R-square values (1-SSE/(SSE + SSR)) [
27], about 80–89% of the variance for the outcome variable can be explained by the independent variables that are included in our final models in overall GZ and CD datasets, respectively (data not shown). The nationwide FRD ban in China was effective on April 1, 2018, thus, the number of the cross-sections available after the ban was relatively few and further continuously monitoring the trend of the outcome over time after the ban is needed. Our study was a cross-sectional design, thus, couldn’t figure out the causal relationship between the covariates and the outcome. Pseudo-panel data approach is an aggregation method, therefore, we lost some information and statistical power. We did not include whole blood donors/donations in our analyses due to the reasons discussed in the Methods, and thus, our findings are plateletpheresis-specific and cannot be generalized to whole blood donations.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Guangdong Pass Soft Medical Technology Co., Ltd. and Tangshan Qiao Technology Co., Ltd., the providers of the blood service information system for Guangzhou Blood Center and Chengdu Blood Center, respectively, for their assistance in data extraction. We also want to thank Professor Lin Xu at the Sun Yat-sen University School of Public Health for her valuable advice at the early stage of the study design.
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