Background
Hypertension is a major cause of the cardiovascular disease (CVD) and all-cause mortality worldwide [
1]. The prevalence of hypertension is still rising rapidly in low and middle-income countries [
2]. An estimated 626 million women and 652 million men aged 30–79 years were living with hypertension globally in 2019 [
3]. Therefore, it is of great clinical significance to identify more modifiable factors for the primary prevention of hypertension.
Recently, there has been growing interest in studies of nutrients and the risk of hypertension [
4,
5]. Dietary fiber, composed of indigestible and non-absorbable carbohydrate polymers, is found primarily in plant material in the diet. Previous studies have reported that the amount and composition of dietary fibers differ from food to food [
6]. Consistently, studies have shown that the beneficial effect of dietary fibers on CVD varied significantly with its water solubility and food sources [
7,
8]. However, although a previous meta-analysis of randomized control trials (RCTs) found that higher consumption of beta-glucan fiber (soluble fiber) was associated with lower blood pressure (BP) levels [
9], none of the previous studies have examined the relation of total dietary insoluble fiber, or insoluble fibers from specific food sources, with the risk of new-onset hypertension. Furthermore, a previous cross-sectional study showed that dietary fiber from different food sources had different associations with the prevalence of hypertension [
10]. Nevertheless, to date, the relation of the variety of insoluble fiber sources with new-onset hypertension has not yet been examined.
To address these essential knowledge gaps, the current study aimed to evaluate the prospective associations between the variety and quantity of insoluble fibers intake from six major food sources (whole and refined grains, vegetables, beans, tubers, and fruits) and new-onset hypertension in general Chinese adults., using data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS), a national health and nutrition survey in China.
Methods
Study design and participants
The study design and major results of the CHNS have been reported elsewhere [
11‐
15]. In brief, CHNS is an ongoing nationwide multipurpose longitudinal open cohort study established in 1989 and has been followed up every 2 to 4 years with a sum of 10 rounds already completed (1989, 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006, 2009, 2011, and 2015). The study participants were sampled from 9 provinces (Heilongjiang [enrolled in 1997], Liaoning, Shandong, Henan, Jiangsu, Hubei, Hunan, Guizhou, and Guangxi) and 3 of China’s largest autonomous cities (Beijing, Shanghai, and Chongqing [all enrolled in 2011]) with a multistage, random cluster approach. In the 2009 round of CHNS, blood samples were collected. All samples were analyzed with strict quality control at a national central lab in Beijing (medical laboratory accreditation certificate ISO 15189:2007). By 2011, the survey included 12 provinces/autonomous cities and 288 communities, which covered 47% of China’s population [
11].
A prospective open cohort study design was employed in our current study based on 7 rounds of CHNS data from 1997 to 2015. As shown in Additional file
1: Figure S1, we first excluded participants who were pregnant (360 person-waves) or < 18 years old (17,672 person-waves). Among the remaining 76,500 person-waves, the participants with BP data measurements (69,852 person-waves) did not differ in most of the baseline characteristics from those with missing BP data (6648 person-waves; Additional file
1: Table S1). The remaining participants who were surveyed at least two rounds were included, and the first round is termed as the baseline. In addition, participants who had hypertension (defined as having systolic blood pressure [SBP] ≥ 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic blood pressure [DBP] ≥ 90 mm Hg, previously diagnosed by physicians, or currently receiving antihypertensive therapy) and self-reported physician-diagnosed cardiovascular diseases at baseline, missing cumulative average dietary insoluble fiber data, or implausible cumulative average dietary energy data (male: > 4200 or < 600 kcal/day; female, > 3600 or < 500 kcal/day) [
16] were also excluded. Finally, a total of 12,131 participants were included in the final analyses (Additional file
1: Figure S1).
Data and study materials that support the findings of this study can be found on the CHNS official website (
http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/china). The study was approved by the institutional review boards of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the National Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety and Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Each participant provided written informed consent.
Dietary nutrient intakes
In each survey round of CHNS, trained nutritionists collected dietary data through face-to-face interviews. Individual diet assessment was repeatedly assessed with 3 consecutive 24-h dietary recalls at an individual level in combination with weighing inventory over the same 3 days at the household level. The 3 consecutive days were randomly allocated from Monday to Sunday and were almost equally balanced across the 7 days of the week for each sampling unit. The China food composition tables (FCTs) were used to calculate nutrient intakes of each participant. It has been validated that 24-h dietary recall could accurately assess energy and nutrient intake [
17‐
19]. The amount of dietary insoluble fiber for each food, which was measured with the neutral detergent method, was available from the Chinese FCTs.
We calculated 3-day average intakes of dietary macro- and micro-nutrients in each round in the analyses. To represent long-term dietary intake and minimize within-person variation, all values of each nutrient in the analyses, if not specified, were presented as the cumulative averages, using all results from baseline to the last visit before the date of new-onset hypertension, or using all results during the follow-up among participants without new-onset hypertension. Moreover, in our current study, total insoluble fiber was divided into specific sourced fibers. Food sources constituting these subtypes are presented in Additional file
1: Table S2. The variety score of insoluble fiber sources was the sum of the total numbers of the major food sources of insoluble fibers consumed at the appropriate quantity during the study period [
20,
21]. The appropriate quantity for each major food source of insoluble fiber was determined by assessing insoluble fiber intakes from different food sources as categorical variables (quartiles or tertiles) and choosing the corresponding insoluble fiber categories with the relatively lowest risk of new-onset hypertension.
Assessment of blood pressure and covariates
Seated BP was measured by trained research staff using a mercury manometer and an appropriate-sized cuff, following a standard method at each study survey after the participants had rested for 5 min. The BP of the same arm was measured three times in a quiet and bright room. The mean SBP and DBP of all measurements were used in the analysis.
Demographic and lifestyle information was available through questionnaires, including age, sex, smoking status, occupations, education levels, and living regions. Calibrated equipment was used to measure body height and weight following a standard operation procedure. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight (kg) divided by height squared (m2).
Assessment of outcomes
The study outcome was new-onset hypertension, defined as an SBP ≥ 140 mmHg or a DBP ≥ 90 mmHg, or physician-diagnosed hypertension, or receiving antihypertensive treatments during the follow-up [
22,
23].
The year of each participant's first entry into the survey was considered as the baseline. The follow-up person-time for each participant was calculated from the baseline date until the first hypertension diagnosis (the middle date between the survey of the first diagnosis and the nearest survey before), the last survey round before the participant’s departure from the survey, or the end of the latest survey (2015), whichever came first.
Statistical analysis
Population characteristics were presented as mean (standardized deviation [SD]) or proportions for continuous and categorical variables, respectively. Differences in population characteristics by the quartile of dietary total insoluble fiber intake were compared using ANONA tests or \({\chi }^{2}\) tests, accordingly.
Age-stratified Cox proportional-hazards models were used to estimate the association of variety score of insoluble fiber sources, intake of total insoluble fiber, and insoluble fibers from different food sources (refined and whole grains, vegetables, beans, tubers, and fruits) with new-onset hypertension, without and with adjustments for sex, BMI, SBP, DBP, smoking, alcohol drinking, urban or rural residents, regions, education levels, occupations, physical activity levels, self-reported physician-diagnosed diabetes, dietary intakes of sodium, potassium, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. Moreover, mutual adjustments for intakes of other sources of insoluble fiber were further included for the association between insoluble fibers from different food sources and new-onset hypertension. The Schoenfeld residual test was used to test the proportional hazards assumption, and no clear evidence of violation was detected. We also used restricted cubic splines with 3 knots (25%, 50%, 75% of intake of insoluble fibers) to investigate the potential nonlinear relationship of total dietary insoluble fiber and insoluble fibers from different food sources with new-onset hypertension with the adjustments for the covariates mentioned before.
A series of sensitivity analyses were conducted. First, dietary intakes of vitamin A, vitamin B
2, niacin, copper, and zinc were further adjusted. Second, dietary intakes of refined and whole grains, vegetables, beans, tubers, and fruits were further adjusted. Third, BMI trajectory classes, which were estimated by the R package lcmm, were further adjusted. Fourth, total insoluble fiber intake was estimated by multiple source methods (MSM) [
24]. Fifth, those with physician-diagnosed hypertension or receiving antihypertensive treatments were further excluded to account for the effect of possible dietary changes due to diagnosis on the results. Moreover, possible modifications of the association between variety score of insoluble fiber source and new-onset hypertension were evaluated by stratified analyses and interaction testing.
A 2-side
P value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All statistical analyses were conducted using R software (version 4.0.2,
https://www.R-project.org/).
Discussion
In this large, prospective cohort study among general Chinese adults, we reported an L-shaped association between dietary total insoluble fiber and new-onset hypertension. In addition, there was no obvious association of refined grain-derived insoluble fiber with new-onset hypertension, while a reversed J-shaped association of whole grain-derived insoluble fiber and L-shaped associations for insoluble fibers from vegetables, beans, tubers, and fruits, with new-onset hypertension. Moreover, a higher variety score of insoluble fibers was significantly associated with a lower risk of new-onset hypertension.
A previous meta-analysis of 18 RCTs reported that an increase in total fiber intake had no significant impact on BP [
9]. Another meta-analysis of 15 RCTs with the moderate quality found that higher intakes of total dietary fiber were associated with lower SBP levels (mean difference: − 1.27 mmHg; 95% CI: − 2.50 to − 0.04) [
25]. However, among these RCTs, limited data were available for fiber described as soluble or insoluble. The potential effect and the underlying mechanisms of soluble fiber on BP have been relatively thoroughly investigated [
9,
26]. Nevertheless, to date, only two cross-sectional studies have evaluated the relation of insoluble fiber intake and the prevalence of hypertension and reported inconsistent findings [
10,
27]. As such, to date, the prospective relations of the variety and quantity of different sources of dietary insoluble fibers intake and hypertension remain uncertain. Our current study, with a prospective design and a relatively large sample size, provided an opportunity to assess the dose–response associations between the variety and quantity of insoluble fibers intake from different food sources and new-onset hypertension in the general population.
Our study provides some new insights. First, there were non-linear relations of dietary total insoluble fiber and dietary insoluble fibers from different food sources with new-onset hypertension, including a reversed J-shaped association for the whole grain-derived insoluble fiber, and L-shaped associations for the total insoluble fiber, and insoluble fibers from vegetables, beans, tubers, and fruits. That is, when these foods-derived insoluble fiber intakes were relatively low, there were negative correlations between intakes of foods-derived insoluble fiber and hypertension risk; however, when intake exceeded certain thresholds, the risks of new-onset hypertension will increase or reach a plateau. More importantly, we found that there was no obvious association between refined grain-derived insoluble fiber and hypertension. The potential mechanisms by which insoluble fiber lowers blood pressure may include reduced inflammation levels [
28,
29] and improved endothelial function [
30]. Moreover, cellulose could inhibit starch digestion by binding α- amylase [
31], thereby reducing glucose absorption and improving insulin resistance, and lowering the risk of hypertension [
32]. However, the reversed J-shaped association of whole grain-derived insoluble fiber with new-onset hypertension and the no obvious association of refined grain-derived insoluble fiber with new-onset hypertension indicated that too high intakes of grain-derived insoluble fibers, especially refined grain-derived insoluble fiber, may have no benefit on BP. Consistently, the smooth curve of the association between grain fiber intake and SBP levels also showed a U-shape in the Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation (SWAN) [
33]. And the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study found that there were positive relations of grain fiber with CVD risk score at baseline and increased insulin resistance index during the study follow-up [
34]. It has been reported that the fiber of refined grain derived from cell walls in the starchy endosperm is nutrient-poor, as it does not include the biochemicals found in the nutrient-rich bran and germ [
35]. Moreover, a recent study showed plasma trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) directly correlated with the intake of whole-grain products [
36]. Overall, more studies are needed to confirm our findings and further examine the underlying mechanisms involved in the associations between the intake of different insoluble fibers and hypertension.
Second, we first found that there was a significant inverse association between the variety score of insoluble fiber sources and new-onset hypertension. More importantly, the removal of any one kind of fiber from the insoluble variety scores could not substantially change our findings. The possible explanation may be that the role of dietary fiber not only depends on the amount of intake but also its food sources. Since not all fibers from different food sources behave in the same way, fibers from a diverse range of sources, with differences in fiber structure and activities, may offer diverse functional characteristics and thus provide better health benefits. However, the detailed mechanisms still need to be further investigated in future studies.
There are some limitations needed to be mentioned. First, although a broad array of covariates had been adjusted in the regression models, the possibility of residual confounding cannot be excluded. For example, CHNS only collected information about self-reported physician-diagnosed hypertension, diabetes, asthma, and CVD but not kidney diseases at baseline. Therefore, we could not examine whether baseline kidney diseases may affect our findings. However, among those with blood sample measurements, further adjustments for creatinine concentrations did not substantially change our findings. Second, the neutral detergent fiber method is a reliable analytical tool for measuring insoluble fiber. We could not calculate the amount of soluble fiber intake. Third, our study only included insoluble fibers from 6 major food sources in Chinese adults. Fourth, since the detailed sampling information was not provided by CHNS, summary statistics like prevalence and incidence should be treated with caution. Finally, our study was conducted in the Chinese population, whether the findings can be extrapolated to other populations needs further investigation. Therefore, the results need further confirmation.
Acknowledgements
This research uses data from China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS). We thank the National Institute for Nutrition and Health, China Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Carolina Population Center (P2C HD050924, T32 HD007168), the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the NIH (R01-HD30880, DK056350, R24 HD050924, and R01-HD38700) and the NIH Fogarty International Center (D43 TW009077, D43 TW007709) for financial support for the CHNS data collection and analysis files from 1989 to 2015 and future surveys, and the China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Ministry of Health for support for CHNS 2009, Chinese National Human Genome Center at Shanghai since 2009, and Beijing Municipal Center for Disease Prevention and Control since 2011.
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