Abstract
Many disciplines have influenced the representation of spatial data, both in analogue and digital forms. Surveyors, navigators, and military and civil engineers refined the fundamental concepts of mathematical geography, established often centuries ago by some of the founders of science, for example by al-Khwārizmı̄. Digital representations came into being for practical reasons in computational geometry, in computer graphics and hardware-supported gaming, and in computer-assisted design and virtual reality. The use of spatial data as a business vehicle has been spurred early in the present century by consumer wired and mobile broadband penetration and distributed server farms, with examples being Google EarthTM, Google MapsTM, and others. There are often interactions between the graphics hardware required and the services offered, in particular for the fast rendering of scene views.
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Notes
- 1.
Free documentation, including the very useful ‘An Introduction to R ’ (Venables et al., 2013), may be downloaded from CRAN.
- 2.
str can take additional arguments to control its output.
- 3.
Data downloaded with permission from SEAMAP (Read et al., 2003), data set 105.
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- 6.
Some maptools functions use Gregory R. Warnes’ mixedorder sort from gtools to sort integer-like strings in integer order.
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http://www.biostat.umn.edu/~brad/data/state-sat.dat, data here supplemented with variable names and state names as used in maps.
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Downloaded from the seamless data distribution system for 3 arcsec ‘Finished’ (90 m) data, http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/; the data can be downloaded as 1 ∘ square tiles.
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Bivand, R.S., Pebesma, E., Gómez-Rubio, V. (2013). Classes for Spatial Data in R . In: Applied Spatial Data Analysis with R. Use R!, vol 10. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7618-4_2
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