Abstract
In the previous chapter, we studied the flow properties of blood. In this chapter, we turn our attention to the blood cells. We give most of the space to the red blood cells, but treat the white blood cells and other cells toward the end of the chpater.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References to Erythrocytes
Bennett, V. and Branton, D. (1977) Selective association of spectrin with the cytoplasmic surface of human erythrocyte plasma membranes. Quantitative determination with purified (32 p) spectrin. J. Biol. Chem. 252, 2753–2763.
Bessis, M. (1956) Cytology of the Blood and Blood-Forming Organs. Grune and Stratton, New York.
Blackshear, P. L., Jr. (1972) Mechanical hemolysis in flowing blood. In Bio-mechanics: Its Foundations and Objectives. Fung, Perrone, and Anliker (eds.) Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Bo, L. and Waugh, R. E. (1989) Determination of bilayer membrane bending stiffness by tether formation from giant, thin-walled vesicles. Biophys. J. 55, 509–517.
Braasch, D. and Jennett, W. (1968) Erythrozyten flexibilität, Hämokonzentration and Reibungswiderstand in Glascapillaren mid Durchmessern zwischen 6 bis 50, u. Pflügers Arch. Physiol. 302, 245–254.
Bränemark, P.-I. (1971) Intravascular Anatomy of Blood Cells in Man. Monograph. Karger, Basel.
Brailsford, J. D. and Bull, B. S. (1973) The red cell—A macromodel simulating the hypotonic-sphere isotonic disk transformation. J. Theor. Biol. 39, 325–332.
Bull, B. S. and Brailsford, J. D. (1975) The relative importance of bending and shear in stabilizing the shape of the red blood cell. Blood Cells 1, 323–331.
Canham, P. B. (1970) The minimum energy of bending as a possible explanation of the biconcave shape of the human red blood cell. J. Theor. Biol. 26, 61–81.
Canham, P. B. and Burton, A. C. (1968) Distribution of size and shape in populations of normal human red cells. Circulation Res. 22, 405–422.
Chen, P. and Fung, Y. C. (1973) Extreme-value statistics of human red blood cells. Microvasc. Res. 6, 32–43.
Chien, S. (1972) Present state of blood rheology. In Hemodilution: Theoretical Basis and Clinical Application, K. Messmer and H. Schmid-Schoenbein (eds.) Karger, Basel.
Chien, S., Usami, S., Dellenback, R. T., and Gregersen, M. I. (1967) Blood viscosity: Influence of erythrocyte deformation. Science 157, 827–829.
Chien, S., Usami, S., Dellenback, R. J., and Bryant, C. A. (1971) Comparative homeorheology—Hematological implications of species differences in blood viscosity. Biorheology 8, 35–57.
Chien, S., Sung, K. L. P., Skalak, R., Usami, S., and Tözeren, A. (1978) Theoretical and experimental studies on viscoelastic properties of erythrocyte membrane. Biophys. J. 24, 463–487.
Chien, S. and Sung, L. A. (1990a) Molecular basis of red cell membrane rheology. Biorheology 27, 327–344.
Chien, S., Feng, S.-S., Vayo, M., Sung, L. A., Usami, S., and Skalak, R. (1990b) The dynamics of shear disaggregation of red blood cells in a flow channel. Biorheology 27, 135–147.
Cohen, W. D. (1978) Observations on the marginal band system of nucleated erythrocytes. J. Cell Biol. 78, 260–273.
Cohen, W. D., Bartlet, D., Jaeger, R., Langford, G., and Nemhauser, I. (1982) The cytoskeletal system of nucleated erythrocytes. I. Composition and function of major elements. J. Cell Biol. 93, 828–838.
Cokelet, G. R. and Meiselman, H. J. (1968) Rheological comparison of hemoglobin solutions and erythrocyte suspensions. Science 162, 275–277.
Cokelet, G. R., Meiselman, J. H., and Brooks, D. E. (eds.) (1980) Erythrocyte Mechanics and Blood Flow. Alan Liss, New York.
Dick, D. A. T. and Lowenstein, L. M. (1958) Osmotic equilibria in human erythrocytes by immersion refractometry. Proc. Roy. Soc. London B 148, 241–256.
Dintenfass, L. (1968) Internal viscosity of the red cell and a blood viscosity equation. Nature 219, 956–958.
Evans, E. A. (1983) Bending elastic modulus of red blood cell membrane derived from buckling instability in micropipet aspiration tests. Biophys. J. 43, 27–30.
Evans, E. and Fung, Y. C. (1972) Improved measurements of the erythrocyte geometry. Microvasc. Res. 4, 335–347.
Evans, E. A. and Hochmuth, R. M. (1976) Membrane viscoelastocity. Biophys. J. 16, 13–26.
Evans, E. A., Waugh, R., and Melnik, L. (1976) Elastic area compressibility modulus of red cell membrane. Biophys. J. 16, 585–595.
Evans, E. A. and Skalak, R. (1979) Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Biomembranes. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Evans, E. A. and Rawicz, W. (1990) Entropy-driven tension and bending elasticity in condensed-fluid membranes. Phys. Rev. Lett. 64, 2094–2097.
Flügge, W. (1960) Stresses in Shells. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Fry D. L. (1968) Acute vascular endothelial changes associated with increased blood velocity gradients. Circulation Res. 22, 165–197.
Fung, Y. C. (1966) Theoretical considerations of the elasticity of red cells and small blood vessels. Fed. Proc. Symp. Microcirc. 25, Part I, 1761–1772.
Fung Y. C. (1968) Microcirculation dynamics. In: Biomedical Sciences Instrumentation. Instrument Society of America. Plenum Press, New York, Vol. 4, pp. 310–320.
Fung, Y. C. and Tong, P. (1968) Theory of the sphering of red blood cells. J. Biophys. 8, 175–198.
Graustein, W. C. (1935) Differential Geometry. Macmillan, New York.
Gregersen, M. I., Bryant, C. A., Hammerle, W. E., Usami, S., and Chien, S. (1967) Flow characteristics of human erythrocytes through polycarbonate sieves. Science 157, 825–827.
Gumbel, E. J. (1954) Statistical Theory of Extreme Value and Somne Practical Applications. National Bureau of Standards, Applied Math. Ser. 33. Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., pp. 1–51.
Gumbel, E. J. (1958) Statistics of Extremes. Columbia University Press, New York.
Hochmuth, R. M. (1987) Properties of red blood cells. In Handbook of Bioengineering, R. Skalak and S. Chien (eds.) McGraw-Hill, New York, Chapter 12.
Hochmuth, R. M., Marple, R. N., and Sutera, S. P. (1970) Capillary blood flow. I. Erythrocyte deformation in glass capillaries. Microvasc. Res. 2, 409–419.
Hochmuth, R. M. and Mohandas, N. (1972) Uniaxial loading of the red cell membrane. J. Biomech. 5, 501–509.
Hochmuth, R. M., Mohandas, N., and Blackshear, Jr., P. L. (1973) Measurement of the elastic modulus for red cell membrane using a fluid mechanical technique. Biophys. J. 13, 747–762.
Hochmuth, R. M., Worthy, P. R., and Evans, E. A. (1979) Red cell extensional recovery and the determination of membrane viscosity. Biophys. J. 26, 101–114.
Hochmuth, R. M., Evans, E. A., Wiles, H. C., and McCown, J. T. (1983) Mechanical measurement of red cell membrane thickness. Science 220, 101–102.
Hoeber, T. W. and Hochmuth, R. M. (1970) Measurement of red blood cell modulus of elasticity by in vitro and model cell experiments. Trans. ASME Ser. D, 92, 604.
Houchin, D. W., Munn, J. I., and Parnell, B. L. (1958) A method for the measurement of red cell dimensions and calculation of mean corpuscular volume and surface area. Blood 13, 1185–1191.
Kage, H. S., Engelhardt, H., and Sackman, E. (1990) A precision method to measure average viscoelastic parameters of erythrocyte populations. Biorheology 27, 67–78.
Katchalsky, A., Kedem, D., Klibansky, C., and DeVries, A. (1960) Rheological considerations of the haemolysing red blood cell. In Flow Properties of Blood and Other Biological Systems, A. L. Copley and G. Stainsby (eds.) Pergamon, New York, pp. 155–171.
King, J. R. (1971) Probability Chart for Decision Making. Industrial Press, New York.
Lingard, P. S. (1974 et seq) Capillary pore rheology of erythrocytes.
I. Hydroelastic behavior of human erythrocytes. Microvasc. Res. 8, 53–63.
II. Preparation of leucocyte-poor suspension. ibid, 8, 181–191 (1974).
III. Behavior in narrow capillary pores. ibid., 13, 29–58 (1977).
IV. Effect of pore diameter and hematocrit. ibid., 13, 59–77 (1977).
V. Glass capillary array. ibid., 17, 272–289 (1979).
Lingard, P. S. and Whitmore, R. L. (1974) The deformation of disk-shaped particles by a shearing fluid with application to the red blood cell. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 49, 119–127.
Lipowsky, R. (1991) The conformation of membranes. Nature 349, 475–481.
Lux, S. E. and Becker, P. S. (1989) Disorders of the red cell membrane skeleton: Hereditary spherocytosis and hereditary elliptocytosis. In The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease, 6th ed., C. R. Scriver, A. L. Beaudet, W. S. Sly, and D. Valle, McGraw—Hill, New York, Vol. 2, pp. 2367–2408.
Marchesi, V. T., Steers, E., Tillack, T. W., and Marchesi, S. L. (1969) Properties of spectrin: A fibrous protein isolated from red cell membranes. In Red Cell Membrane, G. A. Jamieson and T. J. Greenwalt (eds.) Lippincott, Philadelphia, p. 117.
Marchesi, S. L., Steers, E., Marchesi, V. T., and Tillack, T. W. (1970) Physical and chemical properties of a protein isolated from red cell membranes. Biochemistry 9, 50–57.
Needham, D. and Nunn, R. S. (1990) Elastic deformation and failure of lipid bilayer membranes containing cholesteral. Biophys. J. 58, 997–1009.
Norris, C. H. (1939) The tension at the surface and other physical properties of the nucleated erythrocyte. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol. 14, 117–133.
Op den Kamp, J. A. F. (1979) Lipid asymmetry in membranes. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 48, 47–71.
Ponder, E. (1948) Hemolysis and Related Phenomena. Grune and Stratton, New York.
Rand, R. H. and Burton, A. C. (1964) Mechanical properties of the red cell membrane. I. Membrane stiffness and intracellular pressure. II. Viscoelastic breakdown of the membrane. Biophys. J. 4, 115–135; 303–316.
Sabbah, H. N. and Stein, P. D. (1976) Effect of erythrocytic deformability upon turbulent blood flow. Biorheology 13 309–314.
Schmid-Schoenbein, H. and Wells, R. E. (1969) Fluid drop-like transition of erythrocytes under shear. Science 165, 288–291.
Schmidt-Nielsen, K. and Taylor, C. R. (1968) Red blood cells: Why or why not? Science 162, 274–275.
Secomb, T. W., Skalak, R., Özkaya, N., and Gross, J. F. (1986) Flow of axisymmetric red blood cells in narrow capillaries. J. Fluid Mech. 163, 405–423.
Seifriz, W. (1927) The physical properties of erythrocytes. Protoplasma 1, 345–365.
Singer, S. J. (1974) The molecular organization of membranes. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 43, 805–833.
Singer, S. J. and Nicolson, G. L. (1972) The fluid mosaic model of the structure of cell membranes. Science 175, 720–731.
Skalak, R. (1973) Modeling the mechanical behavior of red blood cells. Biorheology 10, 229–238.
Skalak, R., Chen, P. H., and Chien, S. (1972) Effect of hematocrit and rouleaux on apparent viscosity in capillaries. Biorheology 9, 67–82.
Skalak, R., Tözeren, A., Zarda, R. P., and Chien, S. (1973) Strain energy function of red blood cell membranes. Biophys. J. 13, 245–264.
Skalak, R. and Zhu, C. (1990) Rheological aspects of red blood cell aggregation. Biorheology 27, 309–325.
Steck, T. L. (1974) The organization of proteins in the human red cell membrane. J. Cell. Biol. 62, 1–19.
Stein, P. D. and Sabbah, H. N. (1974) Measured turbulence and its effect on thrombus formation. Circulation Res. 35, 608–614.
Stein, P. D., Sabbah, H. N., and Blick, E. F. (1975) Contribution of erythrocytes to turbulent blood flow. Biorheology 12, 293–299.
Stokke, B. T. (1984) The role of spectrin in determining mechanical properties, shapes, and shape transformations of human erythrocytes. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Trandheim, Norway.
Struik, D. J. (1950) Lectures on Classical Differential Geometry. Addison-Wesley, Cambridge, MA.
Sugihara-Seki, M. and Skalak, R. (1988) Numerical study of asymmetric flows of red blood cells in capillaries. Microvasc. Res. 36, 64–74.
Sugihara-Seki, M. and Skalak, R. (1989) Stability of particle motions in a narrow channel flow. Biorheology 26, 261–277.
Tözeren, H. and Skalak, R. (1979) Flow of elastic compressible spheres in tubes. J. Fluid Mech. 95, 743–760.
Tözeren, A., Skalak, R., Fedorciw, B., Sung, K. L. P., and Chien, S. (1984) Constitutive equations of erythrocyte membrane incorporating evolving preferred configuration. Biophys. J. 45, 541–549.
Tözeren, A., Sung, K. L. P., and Chien, S. (1989) Theoretical and experimental studies on cross-bridge migration during cell disaggregation. Biophys. J. 50, 479–487.
Tsang, W. C. O. (1975) The size and shape of human red blood cells. M. S. Thesis. University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California.
Wang, H. and Skalak, R. (1969) Viscous flow in a cylindrical tube containing a line of spherical particles. J. Fluid Mech. 38, 75–96.
Waugh, R. and Evans, E. A. (1979) Temperature dependence of the elastic moduli of red blood cell membrane. Biophys. J. 26, 115–132.
Waugh, R. E., Erwin, G., and Bouzid, A. (1986) Measurement of the extensional and flexural rigidities of a subcellular structure: Marginal bands isolated from erythrocytes of the newt. J. Biomech. Eng. 108, 201–207.
Zarda, P. R., Chien, S., and Skalak, R. (1977) Elastic deformations of red blood cells. J. Biomech. 10, 211–221.
References to Leukocytes and Other Cells
Atherton, A. and Born, G. V. R. (1972) Quantitative investigations of the adhesiveness of circulating polymorphonuclear leukocytes to blood vessel walls. J. Physiol. (London) 222, 447–474.
Bray, C. (1984) Axonal growth in response to experimentally applied tension. Dev. Biol. 102, 379–389.
Chien, S., Schmid-Schönbein, G. W., Sung, K. L. P., Schmalzer, E. A., and Skalak, R. (1984) Viscoelastic properties of leukocytes. In White Blood Cell Mechanics: Basic Science and Clinical Aspects. H. L. Meiselman and M. A. Lichtman (eds.) Plenum Press, New York, pp. 19–51.
Curtis, A. S. G. and Seehar, G. M. (1978) The control of cell division by tension or diffusion. Nature (London) 274, 52–53.
DeWitt, M. T., Handley, C. J., Oakes, B. W., and Lowther, D. A. (1984) In vitro response of chondrocytes to mechanical loading. The effects of short term mechanical tension. Connective Tissue Res. 12, 97–109.
Dong, C., Skalak, R., Sung, K.-L. P., Schmid-Schönbein, G. W., and Chien, S. (1988) Passive deformation analysis of human leukocytes. J. Biomech. Eng. 110, 27–36.
Dong. C., Skalak, R., and Sung, K.-L. P. (1991) Cytoplasmic rheology of passive neutrophils. Biorheology 28, 557–567.
Evans, E. A. (1984) Structural model for passive granulocyte behavior based on mechanical deformation and recovery after deformation tests. In White Cell Mechanics ( H. J. Meiselman, M. A. Lichtman, and P. L. LaCelle (eds.) Alan Liss, New York.
Evans, E. A. and Yeung, A. (1989) Apparent viscosity and cortical tension of blood granulocytes determined by micropipet aspiration. Biophys. J. 43, 27–30.
Fenton, B. M., Wilson, D. W., and Cokelet, G. R. (1985) Analysis of the effects of measured white blood cell entrance times on hemodynamics in a computer model of a microvascular bed. Pflügers Arch. 403, 396–401.
Folkman, J. and Handenschild, C. (1980) Angiogenesis in vitro. Nature (London) 288, 551–556.
Holberton, D. V. (1977) Locomotion of protozoa and single cells. In Mechanics and Energetics of Animal Locomotion. R. McN. Alexander and G. Goldspink (eds.), Chapman and Hall, London, Chapter 11, pp. 279–326.
Hurley, J. V. (1963) An electron microscopic study of leukocytic emigration and vascular permeability in rat skin. Austral. J. Exp. Biol. 41, 171–186.
Huxley, H. E., Bray, D., and Weeds, A. G. (eds.) (1982) Molecular biology of cell locomotion. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London B.299, 145–327.
Ingber, D. E. and Folkman, J. (1989) How does extracellular matrix control capillary morphogenesis? Cell 58, 803–805.
Jones, D. B., Nolte, H., Scholübbers, J.-G., Turner, E., and Veltel, D. (1991) Biochemical signal transduction of mechanical strain in osteoblastlike cells. Biomaterials, 12; 101–110.
Khouri, R. K., Koudsi, B., and Reddi, H. (1991) Tissue transformation into bone in vivo, a potential practical application. JAMA 266, 1953–1955.
Klein-Nulend, J., Veldhuijzen, J. P., van de Stadt, R. J., Jos van Kampen, G. P., Keujer, R., and Burger, E. H. (1987) Influence of intermittent compressive force on proteoglycan content in calcifying growth plate cartilage in vitro. J. Biol. Chem. 262, 15, 490–15, 495.
Lanyon, L. E., Goodship, A. E., Pye, C. J., and MacFie, J. H. (1982) Mechanically Adaptive bone remodeling. J. Biomechanics 15, 141–154.
Leung, D. Y. M., Glagov, S., and Mathews, M. B. (1976) Cyclic stretching stimulates synthesis of matrix components by arterial smooth muscle cells in vitro. Science 191, 475–477.
Lichtman, M. A. (1970) Cellular deformability during maturation of the myeloblast: Possible role of marrow egress. New England J. Med. 283, 943–948.
Lipowsky, R. (1991) The conformation of membrane. Nature 349, 475–481.
Lanyon, L. E. (1984) Functional strain as a determinant for bone remodeling. Calcif. Tiss. Res. 36, 556–561.
Morgan, H. E., Gorden, E. E., Kira, Y., Chua, B. H. L., Russo, L. A., Peterson, C. L., McDermott, P. J., and Watson, P. A. (1987) Biochemical mechanisms of cardiac hypertrophy. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 49, 533–543.
Needham, D. and Hochmuth, R. M. (1990) Rapid flow of passive neutrophils into a 4 pm pipet and measurement of cytoplasmic viscosity. J. Biomech. Eng. 112, 269276
Odell, G. M., Oster, G., Alberch, P., and Burnside, B. (1981) The mechanical basis of morphogenesis. I. Epithelial folding and invagination. Devel. Biol. 85, 446–462.
Op den Kamp, J. A. F. (1979) Lipid asymmetry in membranes. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 48, 47–71.
Pipkin, A. C. (1964) Small finite deformations of viscoelastic solids. Rev. Mod. Phys. 36, 1034–1041.
Rannels, D. E. (1989) Role of physical forces in compensatory growth of the lung. Am. J. Physiol. 257, L179 — L189.
Rubin, C. T. and Lanyon, L. E. (1985) Regulation of bone mass by mechanical strain magnitude. Calcif. Tiss. Res. 37, 411–417.
Sachs, F. (1990) Mechanical transduction in biological systems. In CRC Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering. CRC Press, Orlando, FL.
Schmid-Schönbein, G. W., Fung, Y. C., and Zweifach, B. W. (1975) Vascular endothelium—leukocyte interaction. Circulation Res. 36, 173–184.
Schmidt-Schönbein, G. W., Sung, K.-L. P., Tözeren, H., Skalak, R., and Chien, S. (1981) Passive mechanical properties of human leukocytes. Biophys. J. 36, 243–256.
Schmid-Schönbein, G. W., Skalak, R., Sung, K. L.-P., and Chien, S. (1983) Human leukocytes in the active state. In White Blood Cells, Morphology and Rheology as Related to Function, U. Bagge, G. B. R. Bom, and P. Gaehtgens (eds.) Martinus Mijhoff, The Hague, pp. 21–31.
Schmid-Schönbein, G. W. (1987) Capillary plugging by granulocytes and the no-reflow phenomenon in the microcirculation. Fed. Proc. 46, 2397–2401.
Schultz, S. G. (1989) Volume preservation: Then and now. News in Physiol. Sci. 4, 169–172.
Stewart, D. M. (1972) The role of tension in muscle growth. In Regulation of Organ and Tissue Growth, R. J. Goss (ed.) Academic Press, New York, pp. 77–100.
Stossel, T. P. (1982) The structure of cortical cytoplasm. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London B 299, 275–289.
Strohman, R. C., Byne, E., Spector, D., Obinata, T., Micou-Eastwood, J., and Maniotis, A. (1990) Myogenesis and histogeneis of skeletal muscle on flexible membranes in vitro. In Vitro Cell Der. Biol. 26, 201–208.
Sung, K.-L. P., Schmid-Schönbein, G. W., Skalak, R., Schuessler, G. B., Usami, S., and Chien, S. (1982) Influence of physicochemical factors on rheology of human neutrophils. Biophys. J. 39, 101–106.
Sung, K.-L. P., Sung, L. A., Crimmins, M., Burakoff, S. J., and Chien, S. (1986) Determination of junction avidity of cytolytic T cell and target cell. Science 234, 1405–1408.
Sung, K.-L. P., Dong, C., Schmid-Schönbein, G. W., Chien, S., and Skalak, R. (1988a) Leukocyte relaxation properties. Biophys. J. 54, 331–336.
Sung, K.-L. P., Sung, L. A., Crimmins, M., Burakoff, S. J., and Chien, S. (1988b) Biophysical basis of cell killing by cytotoxic T Lymphocytes. J. Cell Sci. 91, 179–189.
Vandenburgh, H. H. (1988) A computerized mechanical cell stimulator for tissue culture: Effects on skeletal muscle organogenesis. In Vitro Cell Der. Biol. 24, 609–619.
Vandenburgh, H. H. and Karlisch, P. (1989) Longitudinal growth of skeletal myotubes in vitro in a new horizontal mechanical cell stimulator. In Vitro Cell Dey. Biol. 25, 607–616.
Vandenburgh, H. H., Swasdison, S., and Karlisch, P. (1991) Computer-aided mechanogenesis of skeletal muscle organs from single cells in vitro. FASEB J. 5, 2860–2867.
Zhu, C. and Skalak, R. (1988) A continuum model of protrusion of pseudopod in leukocytes. Biophys. J. 54, 1115–1137.
Zhu, C., Skalak, R., and Schmid-Schönbein, G. W. (1989) One-dimensional steady continuum model of retraction of pseudopod in leukocytes. J. Biomech. Eng. 111, 69–77.
Zwaal, R. F. A. (1978) Membrane and lipid involvement in blood coagulation. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 515, 163–205.
Zwaal, R. F. A. (1988) Scrambling membrane phospholipids and local control of blood clotting. News in Physiol. Sci. 3, 57–61.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1993 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Fung, YC. (1993). Mechanics of Erythrocytes, Leukocytes, and Other Cells. In: Biomechanics. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-2257-4_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-2257-4_4
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-3104-7
Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-2257-4
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive