Abstract
The motoneurons in the spinal cord and the cranial nerve nuclei of the brain stem innervate the skeletal muscles. They form Sherrington’s “final common path” to the striated muscles for all signals that influence motor behaviour coming from peripheral sensory receptors and from motor centres in the brain stem and the cerebral cortex. The spinal and bulbar motoneurons with their respective premotor interneurons form the basic motor system. This system forms the basis for spinal and bulbar reflexes and for basic motor patterns such as walking, which in turn are modulated by descending supraspinal pathways. The interneuronal or propriospinal system is in large part responsible for the great versatility that characterizes motor behaviour. The descending pathways from the cerebral cortex and the brain stem to the interneurons and motoneurons of the spinal cord represent the instruments by which the brain steers movements of body and limbs. The descending supraspinal pathways consist of two parallel sets that are derived from the cerebral cortex and the brain stem, respectively. Likewise, corticonuclear or corticobulbar as well as brain stem projections innervate the interneurons and motoneurons of the trigeminal, facial, ambiguus and hypoglossal motor nuclei. Two other brain structures, the cerebellum and the basal ganglia, are crucially important for motor functions. The activity generated in the cerebellum and the basal ganglia is largely channelled through the brain stem descending pathways and the corticospinal tract. Several forebrain structures known for their close relation to emotional behaviour, such as parts of the amygdala and the hypothalamus, have direct access to brain stem areas controlling motoneurons. They form a highly integrated system which is especially concerned with emotional and motivational states. This is referred to as the emotional motor system.
In this chapter, first the peripheral motor system, composed of spinal and bulbar motoneurons, will be discussed, including their role in reflex pathways and muscle tone (► Sect. 9.2). These lower motoneurons are innervated by interneurons in the spinal cord and the brain stem through propriospinal and propriobulbar projections, respectively. Certain populations of interneurons form specialized pattern generators for rhythmic movements like locomotion. Subsequently, in ► Sect. 9.3 human walking, gait control and posture and in ► Sect. 9.4 the circuitry for central control of movement will be discussed. Disorders of the motor circuitry will be presented with emphasis on lesions of supraspinal motor structures and are abundantly illustrated with clinical cases. The English terms of the Terminologia Neuroanatomica are used throughout.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Akay T, Tourtelotte WG, Arber S, Jessell TM (2014) Degradation of mouse locomotor pattern in the absence of proprioceptive sensory feedback. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111:16877–16882
Alaynick WA, Jessell TM, Pfaff SL (2011) SnapShot: spinal cord development. Cell 146:178–178.e1
Alstermark B, Lundberg A (1992) The C3-C4 propriospinal system: target-reaching and food-taking. In: Jami L, Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Zytnicki D (eds) Muscle afferents and spinal control. Pergamon, Oxford, pp 328–354
Alstermark B, Sasaki S (1985) Integration in descending motor pathways controlling the forelimb in the cat. 13. Corticospinal effects in shoulder, elbow, wrist, and digit motoneurons. Exp Brain Res 59:353–364
Alstermark B, Górska T, Lundberg A, Pettersson L-G, Walkowska M (1987) Effect of different spinal cord lesions on visually guided switching of target-reaching in cats. Neurosci Res 5:63–67
Alstermark B, Isa T, Ohti Y, Saito Y (1999) Disynaptic pyramidal excitation in forelimb motoneurons mediated via C3-C4 propriospinal neurons in the Macaca fuscata. J Neurophysiol 82:3580–3585
Amassian VE, Quirk GJ, Stewart M (1990) A comparison of corticospinal activation by magnetic coil and electrical stimulation of monkey motor cortex. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 77:390–401
Amassian VE, Eberle L, Maccabee P, Cracco RQ (1992) Modelling magnetic coil excitation of human cerebral cortex with a peripheral nerve immersed in a brain-shaped volume conductor: significance of fiber bending in excitation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 85:291–301
Amiez C, Kostopoulos P, Champod A-S, Petrides M (2006) Local morphology predicts functional organization of the dorsal premotor region in the human brain. J Neurosci 26:2724–2731
Archer DB, Vaillancourt DE, Coombes SA (2018) A template and probabilistic atlas of the human sensorimotor cortex tracts using diffusion MRI. Cereb Cortex 28:1685–1699
Armand J (1982) The origin, course and termination of corticospinal fibers in various mammals. Prog Brain Res 57:329–360
Armstrong DM (1986) Supraspinal contributions to the initiation and control of locomotion in the cat. Prog Neurobiol 26:273–362
Baldissera F, Hultborn H, Illert M (1981) Integration in spinal neuronal systems. In: Brooks VB (ed) Handbook of physiology, sect 1: the nervous system, Motor systems, vol II. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, pp 509–595
Bálint R (1909) Seelenlähmung des Schauens, optische Ataxie, räumliche Störung der Aufmerksamkeit. Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 25:51–81
Barbeau H, Norman K, Fung J, Visintin M, Ladouceur M (1998) Does neurorehabilitation play a role in the recovery of walking in neurological populations? Ann N Y Acad Sci 860:377–392
Barbeau H, Ladouceur M, Norman KE, Pepin A, Leroux A (1999) Walking after spinal cord injury: evaluation, treatment, and functional recovery. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 80:225–235
Barker D (1974) The morphology of muscle receptors. In: Hunt CC (ed) Handbook of sensory physiology, Part 2: Muscle receptors, vol 3. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, pp 1–190
Barnard JW, Woolsey CN (1956) A study of localization in the corticospinal tracts of monkey and rat. J Comp Neurol 105:25–50
Barnes S (1901) Degeneration in hemiplegia: with special reference to a ventrolateral pyramidal tract, the accessory fillet and Pick’s bundle. Brain 24:463–501
Basmajian JV (1967) Muscles alive. Their functions revealed by electromyography, 2nd edn. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore
Baumann SB, Noll DC, Kondziolka DS, Schneider W, Nichols TE, Mintun MA et al (1995) Comparison of functional magnetic resonance imaging with positron emission tomography and magnetoencephalography to identify the motor cortex in a patient with an arteriovenous malformation. J Image Guid Surg 1:191–197
Bentivoglio M, Rustioni A (1986) Corticospinal neurons with branching axons to the dorsal column nuclei in the monkey. J Comp Neurol 253:260–276
Bessou P, Emonet-Dénand F, Laporte Y (1965) Motor fibres innervating extrafusal and intrafusal muscle fibres in the cat. J Physiol Lond 180:649–672
Binder MD, Stuart DG (1980) Motor unit-muscle receptor interactions: design features of the neuromuscular control system. Prog Clin Neurophysiol 8:72–98
Bortoff GA, Strick PL (1993) Corticospinal terminations in two New-World primates: further evidence that corticomotoneuronal connections provide part of the neural substrate for manual dexterity. J Neurosci 13:5105–5118
Bossy J (1990) Anatomique clinique, neuro-anatomie. Springer, Paris
Boudrias M-H, Belhaj-Saif A, Park MC, Cheney PD (2006) Contrasting properties of motor output from the supplementary motor area and primary motor cortex in rhesus macaques. Cereb Cortex 16:632–638
Bowker RM, Westlund KN, Sullivan MC, Coulter JD (1982) Organization of descending serotonergic projections to the spinal cord. Prog Brain Res 57:239–265
Bowker RM, Westlund KN, Sullivan MC, Wilber JF, Coulter JD (1983) Descending serotonergic, peptidergic and cholinergic pathways from the raphe nuclei. A multiple transmitter complex. Brain Res 288:33–48
Boyd IA, Gladden MH (1985) The muscle spindle. Macmillan, London
Braak H (1976) A primitive gigantopyramidal field buried in the depth of the cingulate sulcus of the human brain. Brain Res 109:219–233
Braakman R, Penning L (1976) Injuries of the cervical spine. Handb Clin Neurol 25:227–380
Brandt T, Strupp M, Benson J (1999) You are better off running than walking with acute vestibulopathy. Lancet 35:746
Brinkman C (1974) Split-brain monkeys: cerebral control of contralateral and ipsilateral arm, hand and finger movements. Thesis, Erasmus University Rotterdam
Brinkman C (1981) Lesions in supplementary motor area interfere with a monkey’s performance of a bimanual coordination task. Neurosci Lett 27:267–270
Brinkman C (1984) Supplementary motor area of the monkey’s cerebral cortex: short- and long-term deficits after unilateral ablation and the effects of subsequent callosal section. J Neurosci 4:918–929
Brinkman J, Kuypers HGJM (1973) Cerebral control of contralateral and ipsilateral arm, hand and finger movements in the split-brain rhesus monkey. Brain 96:653–674
Brinkman C, Porter R (1979) Supplementary motor area in the monkey: activity of neurons during performance of a learned motor task. J Neurophysiol 42:681–709
Briscoe J, Ericson J (2001) Specification of neuronal fates in the ventral neural tube. Curr Opin Neurobiol 11:43–49
Briscoe J, Pierani A, Jessell TM, Ericson J (2000) A homeodomain protein code specifies progenitor cell identity and neuronal fate in the ventral neural tube. Cell 101:435–445
Brodmann K (1903) Beiträge zur histologischen Lokalisation der Grosshirnrinde. I. Die Regio Rolandica. J Psychol Neurol (Lpz) 2:79–107
Brodmann K (1909) Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde. Barth, Leipzig
Brooke MH, Kaiser KK (1970) Muscle fiber types: how many and what kind? Arch Neurol 23:369–379
Brooks VB (1986) The neural basis of motor control. Oxford University Press, New York
Brooks BR, Miller RG, Swash M, Munsat TL (2000) El Escorial revisited: revised criteria for the diagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Other Motor Neuron Disord 1:293–299
Brown TG (1911) The intrinsic factors in the act of progression in the mammal. Proc R Soc Lond B 84:308–319
Brown TG (1914) On the nature of fundamental activity of the nervous centres; together with an analysis of the conditioning of rhythmic activity in progression, and a theory of the evolution of the function of the nervous system. J Physiol Lond 48:18–46
Brown AG (1981) Organisation in the spinal cord. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York
Brown WJ, Fang HCH (1956) Spastic hemiplegia in man associated with unilateral infarct of the corticospinal tract at the pontomedullary junction. Trans Am Neurol Assoc 81:22–26
Brown AG, Fyffe REW (1978) Morphology of group Ia afferent fibre collaterals in the spinal cord of the cat. J Physiol Lond 274:111–127
Brown AG, Fyffe REW (1979) The morphology of group Ib afferent fibre collaterals in the spinal cord of the cat. J Physiol Lond 296:221–228
Brown-Séquard CE (1846) Recherches et expériences sur la physiologie de la moelle épinière. Thèse de Paris
Brown-Séquard CE (1849) De la transmission des impressions sensitives dans la moelle épinière. C R Soc Biol 2:192–194
Brown-Séquard CE (1868) Lectures on the physiology and pathology of the central nervous system and on the treatment of organic nervous affections. Lancet 2:593–596, 659–661, 755–757, 821–823
Büchel C, Raedler T, Sommer M, Sach M, Weiller C, Koch MA (2004) White matter asymmetry in the human brain: a diffusion tensor MRI study. Cereb Cortex 14:945–951
Buchtal F (1961) The general concept of the motor unit. Res Publ Assoc Nerv Ment Dis 38:3–30
Buchtal F, Schmalbruch M (1980) Motor unit of mammalian muscle. Physiol Rev 60:90–142
Bucy PC, Keplinger JE (1961) Section of the cerebral peduncles. Arch Neurol 5:132–139
Bucy PC, Keplinger JE, Siqueira EB (1964) Destruction of the ‘pyramidal tract’ in man. J Neurosurg 21:385–398
Bumke OCE (1907) Ueber Variationen im Verlauf der Pyramidenbahn. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 42:1–18
Burke RE (1967) Motor unit types of cat triceps surae muscle. J Physiol Lond 193:141–161
Burke RE (1981) Motor units: anatomy, physiology and functional organization. In: Brooks VB (ed) Handbook of physiology, sect 1: the nervous system, Motor systems, vol II. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, pp 351–364
Burke D (1988) Spasticity as an adaptation to pyramidal tract injury. Adv Neurol 47:401–423
Burke RE, Levine DN, Tsairis P, Zajac FE (1973) Physiological types and histochemical profiles in motor units of the cat gastrocnemius. J Physiol Lond 234:723–748
Burke D, Gracies JM, Meunier S, Pierrot-Deseilligny E (1994) Changes in presynaptic inhibition of afferents to propriospinal-like neurones in man during voluntary contractions. J Physiol Lond 449:673–687
Buys EJ, Lemon RN, Mantel GWH, Muir RB (1986) Selective facilitation of different hand muscles by single corticospinal neurones in the conscious monkey. J Physiol Lond 281:529–549
Calauti C, Baron JC (2003) Functional neuroimaging studies of motor recovery after stroke in adults: a review. Stroke 34:1553–1566
Capaday C (2000) Control of a ‘simple’ stretch reflex in humans. Trends Neurosci 23:528–530
Capaday C (2002) The special nature of human walking and its neural control. Trends Neurosci 25:370–376
Capaday C, Lavoie BA, Barbeau H, Schneider C, Bonnard M (1999) Studies on the corticospinal control of human walking. I. Responses to focal transcranial magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex. J Neurophysiol 81:129–139
Carlton SM, Chung JM, Leonard RB, Willis WD (1985) Funicular trajectories of brainstem neurons projecting to the lumbar spinal cord in the monkey (Macaca fascicularis): a retrograde labeling study. J Comp Neurol 241:382–404
Castiglione AJ, Gallaway MC, Coulter JD (1978) Spinal projections from the midbrain in monkey. J Comp Neurol 178:329–346
Catsman-Berrevoets CE, Kuypers HGJM (1976) Cells of origin of cortical projections to dorsal column nuclei, spinal cord and bulbar medial reticular formation of the rhesus monkey. Neurosci Lett 3:245–252
Charcot J, Joffroy A (1869) Deux cas d’atrophie musculaire progressive avec lésions de la substance grise et des faisceaux antéro-latéreaux de la moelle épinière. Arch Physiol Neurol Pathol 2:744
Cheema SS, Rustioni A, Whitsel BL (1984) Light and electron microscopic evidence for a direct corticospinal projection to superficial laminae of the dorsal horn in cats and monkeys. J Comp Neurol 225:276–290
Cheney PD (2002) Electrophysiological methods for mapping brain motor and sensory circuits. In: Toga AW, Mazziotta JC (eds) Brain mapping: the methods, 2nd edn. Academic, San Diego, pp 189–206
Cheney PD, Fetz EE, Mewes K (1991) Neural mechanisms underlying corticospinal and rubrospinal control of limb movements. Prog Brain Res 87:213–252
Chenot Q, Tzourio-Mazoyer N, Rheault F, Descoteaux M, Crivello F, Zago L et al (2019) A population-based atlas of the human pyramidal tract in 410 healthy participants. Brain Struct Funct 224:599–612
Chokroverty S, Rubino FA, Haller C (1975) Pure motor hemiplegia due to pyramidal infarction. Arch Neurol 32:647–648
Chollet F, DiPiero V, Wise RJ, Brooks DJ, Dolan RJ, Frackowiak RSJ (1991) The functional anatomy of motor recovery after stroke in humans: a study with positron emission tomography. Ann Neurol 29:63–71
Cole JD, Sedgwick EM (1992) The perceptions of force and of movements in a man without large myelinated sensory afferents below the neck. J Physiol Lond 449:503–515
Colebatch JG, Adams L, Murphy K, Martin AJ, Lammertsma AA, Tochon-Danguy HJ et al (1991a) Regional cerebral blood flow during volitional breathing in man. J Physiol Lond 433:91–103
Colebatch JG, Deiber M-P, Passingham RE, Friston KJ, Frackowiak RSJ (1991b) Regional cerebral blood flow during voluntary arm and hand movements in human subjects. J Neurophysiol 65:1392–1401
Collier J, Buzzard F (1901) Descending mesencephalic tracts in cat, monkey and man; Monakow’s bundle; the dorsal longitudinal bundle; the ventral longitudinal bundle; the ponto-spinal tracts, lateral and ventral; the vestibulo-spinal tract; the central tegmental tract (Centrale Haubenbahn); descending fibres of the fillet. Brain 24:177–221
Connelly A, Jackson GD, Frackowiak RSJ, Belliveau JW, Vargha-Khadem F, Gadian DG (1993) Functional mapping of activated human primary motor cortex with a clinical MR imaging system. Radiology 188:125–130
Conway BA, Hultborn H, Kiehn O (1987) Proprioceptive input resets central locomotor rhythm in the spinal cat. Exp Brain Res 68:643–656
Cooper S, Daniel PM (1963) Muscle spindles in man: their morphology in the lumbricals and the deep muscles of the neck. Brain 86:563–586
Damasio H, Damasio AR (1989) Lesion analysis in neuropsychology. Oxford University Press, New York
Dancause N, Barbay S, Frost SB, Plautz EJ, Popescu M, Dixon PM, Stowe AM, Friel KM, Nudo RJ (2006) Topographically divergent and convergent connectivity between premotor and primary motor cortex. Cereb Cortex 16:1057–1068
Danek A, Bauer M, Fries W (1990) Tracing of neuronal connections in the human brain by magnetic resonance imaging in vivo. Eur J Neurosci 2:112–115
Danner SM, Hofstoetter US, Freundl B, Binder H, Mayr W, Rattay F, Minassian K (2015) Human spinal locomotor control is based on flexibly organized burst generators. Brain 138:577–588
Darian-Smith C, Ciferri MM (2005) Loss and recovery of voluntary hand movements in the macaque following a cervical dorsal rhizotomy. J Comp Neurol 491:27–45
Davies HE, Edgley SA (1994) Inputs to group II-activated midlumbar interneurones from descending motor pathways in the cat. J Physiol Lond 479:463–473
Day BL, Rothwell JC, Thompson PD, Dick JPR, Cowan JMA, Berardelli A, Marsden CD (1987) Motor cortex stimulation in intact man. 2. Multiple descending volleys. Brain 110:1191–1209
Day BL, Rothwell JC, Thompson PD, Maertens de Noordhout A, Nakashima H, Shannon K, Marsden CD (1989) Relay in the execution of voluntary movement by electrical magnetic brain stimulation in intact man. Brain 112:649–663
Dejerine J (1901) Anatomie des centres nerveux, Tome 2. Rueff, Paris
Dejerine J (1914) Sémiologie des affections du système nerveux. Masson, Paris
DeMyer W (1959) Number of axons and myelin sheaths in adult human medullary pyramids. Study with silver impregnation and iron hematoxylin staining methods. Neurology 9:42–47
Denny-Brown D (1962) The basal ganglia and their relation to disorders of movements. Oxford University Press, London
Dettmers C, Stephan KM, Lemon RN, Frackowiak RSJ (1997) Reorganization of the executive motor system after stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 7:187–200
Dichgans J, Diener HC (1986) Different forms of postural ataxia in patients with cerebellar diseases. In: Bles W, Brandt T (eds) Disorders of posture and gait. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 207–225
Diener HC, Dichgans J, Mauritz KH (1983) What distinguishes the different kinds of postural ataxia in patients with cerebellar diseases? Adv Otorhinolaryngol 30:285–287
Dietz V (1992) Human neuronal control of automatic functional movements: interaction between central programs and afferent input. Physiol Rev 72:33–69
Dietz V (1997) Neurophysiology of gait disorders: present and future applications. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 103:333–355
Dietz V (2002a) Do human bipeds use quadrupedal coordination? Trends Neurosci 25:462–467
Dietz V (2002b) Proprioception and locomotor disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 3:781–790
Dietz V (2006) Gait disorders and rehabilitation. In: Selzer ME, Clarke S, Cohen LG, Duncan PW, Gage FH (eds) Textbook of neural repair and rehabilitation, vol II. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 283–297
Dietz V, Colombo G (1998) Influence of body load on the gait pattern in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 13:255–261
Dietz V, Michel J (2008) Locomotion in Parkinson’s disease: neuronal coupling of upper and lower limbs. Brain 131:3421–3431
Dietz V, Berger W, Horstmann GA (1988) Posture in Parkinson’s disease: impairment of reflexes and programming. Ann Neurol 24:660–669
Dietz V, Zijlstra W, Assainte C, Trippel M, Berger W (1993) Balance control in Parkinson’s disease. Gait Posture 1:77–84
Dietz V, Colombo G, Jensen L (1994) Locomotor activity in spinal man. Lancet 344:1260–1263
Dietz V, Colombo G, Jensen L, Baumgartner L (1995) Locomotor capacity of spinal cord in paraplegic patients. Ann Neurol 37:574–582
Dietz V, Wirz M, Colombo G, Curt A (1998) Locomotor capacity and recovery of spinal cord function in paraplegic patients: a clinical and electrophysiological evaluation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 109:140–153
Dietz V, Baaken B, Colombo G (2001) Proprioceptive input overrides vestibulospinal drive during human locomotion. Neuroreport 12:2743–2746
Diez del Corral R, Storey KG (2001) Markers in vertebrate neurogenesis. Nat Rev Neurosci 2:835–839
Dimitrijeviv MR, Gerasimenko Y, Pinter MM (1998) Evidence for a spinal pattern generator in humans. Ann N Y Acad Sci 860:360–376
Dubowitz V (1995) Disorders of the lower motor neuron, the spinal muscular atrophy. In: Dubowitz V (ed) Muscular disorders in children. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 325–369
Dubowitz V, Pearse AGE (1960) Reciprocal relationship of phosphorylase and oxidative enzymes in skeletal muscle. Nature 185:701
Dum RP, Strick PL (1991) The origin of corticospinal projections from the premotor areas in the frontal lobe. J Neurosci 11:667–689
Dum RP, Strick PL (1996a) Spinal cord terminations of the medial wall motor areas in macaque monkeys. J Neurosci 16:6513–6525
Dum RP, Strick PL (1996b) The corticospinal system: a structural framework for the central control of movement. In: Rowell LB, Sheperd JT (eds) Handbook of physiology, sect 12: exercise: regulation and integration of multiple systems. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 217–254
Dum RP, Strick PL (2005) Frontal lobe inputs to the digit representations of the motor areas on the lateral surface of the hemisphere. J Neurosci 25:1375–1386
Dum RP, Levinthal DJ, Sprick PL (2009) The spinothalamic system targets motor and sensory areas in the cerebral cortex of monkeys. J Neurosci 29:14223–14235
Dundas R (1825) Case of concussion of the spine, tending to confirm the opinion that the nerves of sensation and motor are distinct. Edinb Med Surg J 23:304–309
Duysens J, Van de Crommert HWAA (1998) Neural control of locomotion; part 1: the central pattern generator from cats to humans. Gait Posture 7:131–141
Duysens J, Clarac F, Cruse H (2000) Load-regulating mechanisms in gait and posture: comparative aspects. Physiol Rev 80:84–133
Edgley SA, Eyre JA, Lemon RN, Miller S (1990) Excitation of the corticospinal tract by electromagnetic and electrical stimulation of the scalp in the macaque monkey. J Physiol Lond 425:301–320
Edström L, Kugelberg E (1968) Histochemical composition, distribution of fibres and fatiguability of single motor units. Anterior tibial muscle of the rat. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 31:424–433
Eidelberg E (1981) Consequences of spinal cord lesions upon motor function, with special reference to locomotor activity. Prog Neurobiol 17:185–202
Eidelberg E, Walden JG, Nguyen LH (1981) Locomotor control in macaque monkeys. Brain 104:647–663
Elder GCB, Bradbury K, Roberts R (1982) Variability of fiber type distributions within human muscles. J Appl Physiol 53:1473–1480
Emonet-Dénand F, Jami L, Laporte Y (1980) Histophysiological observations on the skeleto-fusimotor innervation of mammalian spindles. Prog Clin Neurophysiol 8:1–11
Englander RN, Netsky MG, Adelman LS (1975) Location of human pyramidal tract in the internal capsule: anatomic evidence. Neurology 25:823–825
Feinstein B, Lindegard B, Nyman E, Wohlfart G (1955) Morphologic studies of motor units in normal human muscles. Acta Anat (Basel) 23:127–142
Ferrier D (1876) The functions of the brain. Smith, Elder and Company, London
Ferrier D (1886) The functions of the brain. GP Putnam’s Sons, New York
Ferrier D, Yeo G (1885) A record of experiments on the effects of lesions of different regions of the cerebral hemispheres. Philos Trans Roy Soc B 175:479–564
Fetz EE, Cheney PD (1980) Postspike facilitation of forelimb muscle activity by primate corticomotoneuronal cells. J Neurophysiol 44:751–772
Fetz EE, Cheney PD, German DC (1976) Corticomotoneuronal connections of precentral cells detected by post-spike averages of EMG activity in behaving monkeys. Brain Res 114:505–510
Fetz EE, Cheney PD, Mewes K, Palmer S (1989) Control of forelimb muscle activity by populations of corticomotoneuronal and rubromotoneuronal cells. Prog Brain Res 80:437–449
Fink GR, Frackowiak RSJ, Pietrzyk U, Passingham RE (1997) Multiple nonprimary motor areas in the human cortex. J Neurophysiol 77:2164–2174
Flechsig P (1876) Die Leitungsbahnen im Gehirn und Rückenmark des Menschen auf Grund entwicklungsgeschichtlicher Untersuchungen. Engelmann, Leipzig
Foerster O (1909) Der Lähmungstypus bei corticalen Hirnherden. Dtsch Z Nervenheilkd 37:349–414
Foerster O (1936a) Motorische Felder und Bahnen. In: Bumke H, Foerster O (eds) Handbuch der Neurologie, vol 6. Springer, Berlin, pp 1–357
Foerster O (1936b) Motor cortex in the light of Hughlings Jackson’s doctrines. Brain 59:135–159
Freund H-J (1984) Premotor areas in man. Trends Neurosci 7:481–483
Freund H-J (1987) Abnormalities of motor behavior after cortical lesions in humans. In: Plum F (ed) Handbook of physiology, sect 1: the nervous system, Higher functions of the brain, vol V. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, pp 763–810
Freund H-J (1992) The apraxias. In: Asbury AK, McKhann GM, McDonald WJ (eds) Diseases of the nervous system. Clinical neurobiology, 2nd edn. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 751–767
Freund H-J, Hummelsheim H (1985) Lesions of premotor cortex in man. Brain 108:697–733
Freund H-J, Jeannerod M, Hallett M, Leiguarda R (2005) Higher-order motor disorders. From neuroanatomy and neurobiology to clinical neurology. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Friede RL (1989) Developmental neuropathology, 2nd edn. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York
Fries W, Danek A, Scheidtmann K, Hamburger C (1993) Motor recovery following capsular stroke. Role of descending pathways from multiple motor areas. Brain 116:369–382
Fritsch G, Hitzig E (1870) Ueber die elektrische Erregbarkeit des Grosshirns. Arch Anat Physiol Wiss Med 37:300–332
Gandevia SC, Burke D (2004) Peripheral motor system. In: Paxinos G, Mai JK (eds) The human nervous system, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 113–133
Gans C, Gaunt AS, Webb PW (1997) Vertebrate locomotion. In: Dantzler W (ed) Handbook of physiology, sect 13: comparative physiology. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 55–213
Garcia-Rill E (1986) The basal ganglia and the locomotor regions. Brain Res Rev 11:47–63
Garcia-Rill E, Skinner RD (1987a) The mesencephalic locomotor region. I. Activation of a medullary projection site. Brain Res 411:1–12
Garcia-Rill E, Skinner RD (1987b) The mesencephalic locomotor region. II. Projections to reticulospinal neurons. Brain Res 411:13–20
Garcia-Rill E, Skinner RD, Fitzgerald JA (1985) Chemical activation of the mesencephalic locomotor region. Brain Res 330:43–54
Garrett M, Kerr T, Caulfield B (1999) Phase-dependent inhibition of the soleus H-reflexes during walking in humans is independent of reduction in knee angular velocity. J Neurophysiol 82:747–753
Gath I, Shenhav R (1985) Probabilistic model of the spatial distribution of muscle fibres in human muscles. Biol Cybernet 53:773–782
Gath I, Stålberg E (1981) In situ measurement of the innervation ratio of motor units in human muscles. Exp Brain Res 43:377–382
Gerloff C, Corwell B, Chen R, Hallett M, Cohen LG (1998) The role of the human motor cortex in the control of complex and simple finger movement sequences. Brain 121:1695–1709
Gerloff C, Bushara K, Sailer A, Wassermann EM, Chen R, Matsuoka T et al (2006) Multimodal imaging of brain reorganization in motor areas of the contralesional hemisphere of well recovered patients after capsular stroke. Brain 129:791–808
Geyer S (2004) The microstructural border between the motor and the cognitive domain in the human cerebral cortex. Adv Anat Embryol Cell Biol 174:1–92
Geyer S, Zilles K (2005) Functional neuroanatomy of the human motor cortex. In: Freund H-J, Jeannerod M, Hallett M, Leiguarda R (eds) Higher-order motor disorders. From neuroanatomy and neurobiology to clinical neurology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 3–22
Geyer S, Ledberg A, Schleicher A, Kinomura S, Schormann T, Bürgel U et al (1996) Two different areas within the primary motor cortex of man. Nature 382:805–807
Geyer S, Matelli M, Luppino G, Zilles K (2000) Functional neuroanatomy of the primate isocortical motor system. Anat Embryol (Berl) 202:443–474
Geyer S, Luppino G, Rozzi S (2012) Motor cortex. In: Mai JK, Paxinos G (eds) The human nervous system, 3rd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1012–1035
Gibson AR, Houk JC, Kohlerman NJ (1985) Magnocellular red nucleus activity during different types of limb movement in the macaque monkey. J Physiol Lond 358:527–549
Giovanelli Barilari M, Kuypers HGJM (1969) Propriospinal fibers interconnecting the spinal enlargements in the cat. Brain Res 14:321–330
Goldenberg G (2008) Apraxia. Hb Clin Neurol 88:323–338
Goldenberg G (2013) Apraxia. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Golgi C (1880) Sui nervi dei tendini dell’uomo e di altri vertebrati e di un nuovo organo nervoso terminale musculotendineo. Mem R Accad Sci Torino 32:359–385
Gómez-Skarmeta JL, Campuzano S, Modolell J (2003) Half a century of neural prepatterning: the story of a few bristles and many genes. Nat Rev Neurosci 4:587–598
Goulding M (2009) Circuits controlling vertebrate locomotion. Nat Rev Neurosci 10:507–518
Gouti M, Metzis V, Briscoe J (2015) The route to spinal cord cell types: a tale of signals and switches. Trends Genet 31:282–289
Gracies JM, Meunier S, Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Simonetta M (1991) Pattern of propriospinal-like excitation to different species of human upper limb motoneurons. J Physiol Lond 434:151–167
Grafton ST, Woods RP, Mazziotta JC, Phelps ME (1991) Somatotopic mapping of the primary motor cortex in man: activation studies with cerebral blood flow and PET. J Neurophysiol 66:735–743
Grafton ST, Woods RP, Mazziotta JC (1993) Within-arm somatotopy in human motor areas determined by positron emission tomography imaging of cerebral blood flow. Exp Brain Res 95:172–117
Grafton ST, Martin NA, Mazziotta JC, Woods RP, Vinuela F, Phelps ME (1994) Localization of grasp representations in humans by positron emission tomography study. J Neuro-Oncol 4:97–103
Grafton ST, Hari R, Salenius S (2000) The human motor system. In: Toga AW, Mazziotta JC (eds) Brain mapping: the systems. Academic, San Diego, pp 331–363
Grefkes C, Fink GR (2011) Reorganization of cerebral networks after stroke: new insights from neuroimaging with connectivity approaches. Brain 134:1264–1276
Grillner S (1975) Locomotion in vertebrates – central mechanisms and reflex interaction. Physiol Rev 55:247–304
Grillner S (1981) Control of locomotion in bipeds, tetrapod, and fish. In: Brooks VB (ed) Handbook of physiology, sect 1: the nervous system, Motor systems, vol II. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, pp 1179–1236
Grillner S (1986) Interaction between sensory signals and the central networks controlling locomotion in lamprey, dogfish and cat. In: Grillner S, Stein P, Stuart D, Forssberg H, Hermann R (eds) Neurobiology of vertebrate locomotion. Macmillan, London, pp 505–512
Grillner S (2003) The motor infrastructure: from ion channels to neuronal networks. Nat Rev Neurosci 4:573–586
Grillner S, Rossignol S (1978) On the initiation of the swing phase of locomotion in chronic spinal cats. Brain Res 146:269–277
Grofová I, Maršala J (1966) Tvar a struktura nucleus ruber u člověka (Form and structure of the nucleus ruber in man). Cesk Morfol 8:215–237
Haaxma R (1976) Cortico-corticale verbindingen en visueel geleide hand- en vingerbewegingen bij de rhesusaap. Thesis, Erasmus University Rotterdam (in Dutch)
Haaxma R, Kuypers HGJM (1975) Intrahemispheric cortical connections and visual guidance of hand and finger movements in the rhesus monkey. Brain 98:239–260
Halsband U, Passingham R (1982) The role of premotor and parietal cortex in the direction of action. Brain Res 240:368–372
Hanaway J, Young RR (1977) Localization of the pyramidal tract in the internal capsule of man. J Neurol Sci 34:63–70
Hari R, Antervo A, Katila T, Poutanen T, Seppanen M, Tuomisto T, Varpula T (1983) Cerebral magnetic fields associated with voluntary movements in man. Nuovo Cimento Soc Ital Fis D 2D:484–494
Hathout GM, Bhidayasiri R (2005) Midbrain ataxia: an introduction to the mesencephalic locomotor region and the pedunculopontine nucleus. AJR Am J Roentgenol 184:953–956
He S-Q, Dum RP, Strick PL (1993) Topographic organization of corticospinal projections from the frontal lobe: motor areas on the lateral surface of the hemisphere. J Neurosci 13:952–980
He S-Q, Dum RP, Strick PL (1995) Topographic organization of corticospinal projections from the frontal lobe: motor areas on the medial surface of the hemisphere. J Neurosci 15:3284–3306
Heffner RS, Masterton B (1975) Variation in form of the pyramidal tract and its relationship to digital dexterity. Brain Behav Evol 12:161–200
Heffner RS, Masterton B (1983) The role of the corticospinal tract in the evolution of human digital dexterity. Brain Behav Evol 23:165–183
Heilman KM, Watson RT (2008) The disconnection apraxias. Cortex 44:975–985
Helweg H (1888) Studien über den centralen Verlauf der vasomotorischen Nervenbahnen. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 19:104–183
Henneman E (1957) Relation between size of neurons and their susceptibility to discharge. Science 126:1345–1347
Henneman E, Mendell LM (1981) Functional organization of motoneuron pool and its inputs. In: Brooks VB (ed) Handbook of physiology, sect 1: the nervous system, Motor systems, vol II. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, pp 423–507
Hepp-Reymond M-C (1988) Functional organization of motor cortex and its participation in voluntary movements. In: Seklis HD, Erwin J (eds) Comparative primate biology, vol 4. Liss, New York, pp 501–624
Hepp-Reymond M-C, Wiesendanger M (1972) Unilateral pyramidotomy in monkeys: effects on force and speed of a conditioned precision grip. Brain Res 36:117–131
Hepp-Reymond M-C, Trouche E, Wiesendanger M (1974) Effects of unilateral and bilateral pyramidotomy on a conditioned rapid precision grip in monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Exp Brain Res 21:519–527
Hervé PY, Crivello F, Perchey G, Mazoyer B, Tzourio-Mazoyer N (2006) Handedness and cerebral anatomical asymmetries in young adult males. NeuroImage 29:1066–1079
Hinsey JC, Ranson SW, McNattin RF (1930) The role of the hypothalamus and mesencephalon in locomotion. Arch Neurol Psychiatr 23:1–43
Hoche A (1898) Beiträge zur Anatomie der Pyramidenbahn und der oberen Schleife, nebst Bemerkungen über die abnorme Bündel im Pons und Medulla oblongata. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 30:103–139
Hoffmann P (1922) Die Eigenreflexe menschlicher Muskeln. Springer, Berlin
Holmes G (1904) On certain tremors in organic cerebral lesions. Brain 27:327–375
Holmes G (1915) The Goulstonian lectures on spinal injuries of warfare. Br Med J 2:855–861
Holmes G (1939) The cerebellum of man. Brain 62:1–30
Holstege G (1990) Descending motor pathways and the spinal motor system. Limbic and non-limbic components. Thesis, Erasmus University Rotterdam
Holstege G (1991) Descending motor pathways and the spinal motor system. Limbic and non-limbic components. Prog Brain Res 87:307–421
Holstege G (1992) The emotional motor system. Eur J Morphol 30:67–81
Holstege JC (1996) The ventro-medial medullary projections to spinal motoneurons: ultrastructure, transmitters and functional aspects. Prog Brain Res 107:159–181
Holstege G, Kuypers HGJM (1977) Propriobulbar fibre connections to the trigeminal, facial and hypoglossal motor nuclei. I. An anterograde degeneration study in the cat. Brain 100:239–264
Holstege G, Kuypers HGJM (1982) The anatomy of brain stem pathways to the spinal cord in cat. A labeled amino acid tracing study. Prog Brain Res 57:145–175
Holstege JC, Kuypers HGJM (1987) Brainstem projections to spinal motoneurons: an update. Neuroscience 3:809–821
Holstege G, Kuypers HGJM, Dekker JJ (1977) The organization of the bulbar fibre connections to the trigeminal facial and hypoglossal motor nuclei. II. An autoradiographic tracing study in cat. Brain 100:265–286
Holstege G, Kuypers HGJM, Boer RC (1979) Anatomical evidence for direct brain stem projections to the somatic motoneuronal cell groups and autonomic preganglionic cell groups in cat spinal cord. Brain Res 171:329–333
Holstege G, Mouton LJ, Gerrits NM (2004) Emotional motor system. In: Paxinos G, Mai JK (eds) The human nervous system, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1306–1324
Horak FB, Macpherson JM (1996) Postural orientation and equilibrium. In: Rowell LB, Sheperd JT (eds) Handbook of physiology, sect 12: exercise: regulation and integration of multiple systems. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 255–292
Hoshi E, Tanji J (2007) Distinctions between dorsal and ventral premotor areas: anatomical connectivity and functional properties. Curr Opin Neurobiol 17:234–242
Houlden DA, Schwartz ML, Tator CH, Ashby P, MacKay WA (1999) Spinal cord-evoked potentials and muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation in 10 awake human subjects. J Neurosci 19:1855–1862
Huisman AM, Kuypers HGJM, Verburgh CA (1982) Differences in collateralization of the descending spinal pathways from red nucleus and other brainstem cell groups in cat and monkey. Prog Brain Res 57:185–219
Hultborn H (1976) Transmission in the pathway of reciprocal Ia inhibition to motoneurones and its control during the tonic stretch reflex. Prog Brain Res 44:235–255
Hultborn H (2006) Spinal reflexes, mechanisms and concepts. From Eccles to Lundberg and beyond. Prog Neurobiol 78:215–232
Hultborn H, Jankowska E, Lindström S (1971a) Recurrent inhibition from motor axon collaterals of transmission in the Ia inhibitory pathway to motoneurones. J Physiol Lond 215:591–612
Hultborn H, Jankowska E, Lindström S (1971b) Recurrent inhibition of interneurones monosynaptically activated from group Ia afferents. J Physiol Lond 215:613–636
Iglesias C, Nielsen JB, Marchand-Pauvert V (2008) Corticospinal inhibition of transmission in propriospinal-like neurones during walking. Eur J Neurosci 28:1351–1361
Illert M, Lundberg A, Tanaka R (1977) Integration in descending motor pathways controlling the forelimb in the cat. 3. Convergence on propriospinal neurones transmitting disynaptic excitation from the corticospinal tract and other descending tracts. Exp Brain Res 29:323–346
Illert M, Lundberg A, Padel Y, Tanaka R (1978) Integration in descending motor pathways controlling the forelimb in the cat. 5. Properties of and monosynaptic excitatory convergence on C3-C4 propriospinal neurones. Exp Brain Res 33:101–130
Isa T (2019) Dexterous hand movements and their recovery after central nervous system injury. Annu Rev Neurosci 42:315–335
Ishizuka N, Mannen H, Hongo T, Sasaki S (1979) Trajectory of group Ia afferent fibers stained with horseradish peroxidase in the lumbosacral spinal cord of the cat: three-dimensional reconstructions from serial sections. J Comp Neurol 186:189–212
Jackson JH (1931) Selected writings. Hodder and Stoughton, London
Jagiella WM, Sung JH (1989) Bilateral infarction of the medullary pyramids in humans. Neurology 39:21–24
Jahn K, Deutschländer A, Stephan T, Kalla R, Wiesmann M, Strupp M, Brandt T (2008) Imaging human supraspinal locomotor centers in brainstem and cerebellum. NeuroImage 39:786–792
Jami L (1992) Golgi tendon organs in mammalian skeletal muscle: functional properties and central actions. Physiol Rev 72:623–666
Jankowska E (1992) Interneuronal relay in spinal pathways from proprioceptors. Prog Neurobiol 38:335–378
Jankowska E (2013) Spinal interneurons. In: Pfaff DW (ed) Neuroscience in the 21st century. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 1063–1099
Jankowska E, Lindström S (1972) Morphology of interneurones mediating Ia reciprocal inhibition of motoneurones in the spinal cord of the cat. J Physiol Lond 226:805–823
Janssen P, Scherberger H (2015) Visual guidance in control of grasping. Annu Rev Neurosci 38:69–86
Jeannerod D (1991) Neuroanatomical basis of spasticity. In: Sindou M, Abboot R, Keravel Y (eds) Neurosurgery for spasticity. Springer, Vienna, New York, pp 3–14
Jenny AB, Izukai J (1983) Principles of motor organization of the monkey cervical spinal cord. J Neurosci 3:567–575
Jessell TM (2000) Neuronal specification in the spinal cord: inductive signals and transcriptional codes. Nat Rev Genet 1:20–29
Johnson MA, Polgar J, Weightman D, Appleton D (1973) Data on the distribution of fibre types in thirty six human muscles. An autopsy study. J Neurol Sci 18:111–129
Jordan LM, Liu J, Hedlund PB, Akay T, Pearson KG (2008) Descending command systems for the initiation of locomotion in mammals. Brain Res Rev 57:183–191
Kakei S, Hoffman DS, Strick PL (1999) Muscle and movement representations in the primary motor cortex. Science 285:2136–2139
Kakuda N, Nagaoka M (1998) Dynamic response of human muscle spindle afferents to stretch during voluntary contraction. J Physiol Lond 513:612–618
Kameyana M, Mannen T, Takahashi K (1963) Variations of the pyramidal decussation: a clinicopathological study. Clin Neurol (Tokyo) 3:444–452. (in Japanese)
Kaneko K, Kawai S, Fuchigami Y, Morita H, Ofuji A (1996) The effect of current direction induced by transcranial magnetic stimulation on the corticospinal excitability in human brain. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 101:478–482
Karni A, Meyer G, Rey-Hipolito C, Jezzard P, Adams MM, Turner R et al (1998) The acquisition of skilled motor performance: first and slow experience-driven changes in primary motor cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:861–868
Kawashima R, Yamada K, Kinomura S, Yamaguchi T, Matsui H, Yoshioka S, Fukuda H (1993) Regional cerebral blood flow changes of cortical motor areas and prefrontal areas in humans related to ipsilateral and contralateral hand movements. Brain Res 623:33–40
Kawashima R, Roland PE, O’Sullivan BT (1994) Activity in the human primary motor cortex related to ipsilateral hand movements. Brain Res 663:251–256
Kawashima R, Itoh H, Ono S, Satoh K, Furumoto S, Gatoh R, Koyama M, Yoshioka S, Takahashi T, Yanagisawa T, Fukuda H (1995) Activity in the human primary motor cortex related to arm and finger movements. Neuroreport 6:238–240
Kawashima R, Inoue K, Sato K, Fukuda H (1997) Functional asymmetry of cortical motor control in left-handed subjects. Neuroreport 8:1729–1732
Kazennikov O, Wicki U, Corboz M, Hyland B, Palmeri A, Rouiller EM (1994) Temporal structure of a bimanual goal-directed movement sequence in monkeys. Eur J Neurosci 6:203–210
Keizer K, Kuypers HGJM (1989) Distribution of corticospinal neurons with collaterals to the lower brain stem reticular formation in monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Exp Brain Res 74:311–318
Kennedy WR (1970) Innervation of normal human muscle spindles. Neurology 20:463–475
Kertesz A, Geschwind N (1971) Patterns of pyramidal decussation and their relationship to handedness. Arch Neurol 24:326–332
Kiehn O (2011) Development and functional organization of spinal locomotor circuits. Curr Opin Neurobiol 21:100–109
Kiehn O (2016) Decoding the organization of spinal circuits that control locomotion. Nat Rev Neurosci 17:224–238
Kim S-G, Ashe J, Georgopoulos AP, Merkle H, Ellermann JM, Meno RS et al (1993a) Functional imaging of human motor cortex at high magnetic field. J Neurophysiol 69:297–302
Kim S-G, Ashe J, Hendrick K, Ellermann JM, Merkle H, Ugurbil K, Georgopoulos AP (1993b) Functional magnetic resonance imaging of motor cortex: hemispheric asymmetry and handedness. Science 261:615–617
Kim JS, Kim HG, Chung CS (1995) Medial medullary syndrome. Report of 18 new patients and a review of the literature. Stroke 26:1548–1552
Kleinschmidt A, Nitschke MF, Frahm J (1997) Somatotopy in the human motor cortex hand area. A high-resolution functional MRI study. Eur J Neurosci 9:2178–2186
Knapp HD, Taub E, Berman AJ (1963) Movements in monkeys with deafferented forelimbs. Exp Neurol 7:305–315
Kneisley LW, Biber MP, LaVail JH (1978) A study of the origin of brainstem projections to monkey spinal cord using the retrograde transport method. Exp Neurol 60:116–139
Koehler PJ, Endtz LJ (1986) The Brown-Séquard syndrome. True or false? Arch Neurol 43:921–924
Kostyuk PG (1967) Neuronal mechanisms of corticospinal motor systems. Sechenov Physiol J USSR 53:1311–1321. (in Russian)
Kramer W (1949) De ongekruiste pyramidebaan. Thesis, University of Indonesia, Batavia (in Dutch)
Krause F (1911) Chirurgie des Gehirns und Rückenmarks nach eigenen Erfahrungen. Berlin (quoted from Geyer 2004)
Kretschmann H-J (1988) Localization of the corticospinal fibers in the internal capsule in man. J Anat 160:219–225
Kriellaars DJ, Brownstone RM, Noga BR, Jordan JM (1994) Mechanical entrainment of fictive locomotion in the decerebrate cat. J Neurophysiol 71:2074–2086
Krings T, Buchbinder BR, Butler WE, Chiappa KH, Jiang HJ, Cosgrove GR, Rosen BR (1997) Functional magnetic resonance imaging and transcranial magnetic stimulation: complementary approaches in the evaluation of cortical motor function. Neurology 48:1406–1416
Kristeva-Feige R, Walter H, Lütkenhöner B, Hampson S, Ross B, Knorr U et al (1994) A neuromagnetic study of the functional organization of the sensorimotor cortex. Eur J Neurosci 6:632–639
Kubota K, Masegi T (1977) Muscle spindle supply to the human jaw muscle. J Dent Res 56:901–909
Kucera J (1986) Reconstruction of the nerve supply to a human muscle spindle. Neurosci Lett 63:180–184
Kucera J, Dorovini-Zis K (1979) Types of human intrafusal muscle fibers. Muscle Nerve 2:437–451
Kuhn RA (1950) Functional capacity of the isolated human spinal cord. Brain 73:1–51
Künzle H (1978) An autoradiographic analysis of the efferent connections from premotor and adjacent prefrontal regions (areas 6 and 9) in Macaca fascicularis. Brain Behav Evol 15:185–234
Künzle H, Akert K (1977) Efferent connections of cortical area 8 (frontal eye field) in Macaca fascicularis. A reinvestigation using the autoradiographic technique. J Comp Neurol 173:147–164
Kuypers HGJM (1958a) Corticobulbar connexions to the pons and lower brain stem in man. An anatomical study. Brain 81:364–388
Kuypers HGJM (1958b) Some projections from the peri-central cortex to the pons and lower brain stem in monkey and chimpanzee. J Comp Neurol 110:221–255
Kuypers HGJM (1960) Central cortical projections to motor and somato-sensory cell groups. An experimental study in the rhesus monkey. Brain 83:161–184
Kuypers HGJM (1964) The descending pathways to the spinal cord, their anatomy and function. Prog Brain Res 11:178–202
Kuypers HGJM (1973) The anatomical organization of the descending pathways and their contributions to motor control especially in primates. In: Desmedt JE (ed) New developments in EMG and clinical neurophysiology, vol 3. Karger, Basel, pp 38–68
Kuypers HGJM (1981) Anatomy of the descending pathways. In: Brooks VB (ed) Handbook of physiology, sect 1: the nervous system, Motor systems, vol II. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, pp 597–666
Kuypers HGJM (1982) A new look at the organization of the motor system. Prog Brain Res 57:381–403
Kuypers HGJM, Brinkman J (1970) Precentral projections to different parts of the spinal intermediate zone in the rhesus monkey. Brain Res 14:29–48
Kuypers HGJM, Lawrence DG (1967) Cortical projections to the red nucleus and the brain stem in the rhesus monkey. Brain Res 4:151–188
Kuypers HGJM, Maisky VA (1975) Retrograde axonal transport of horseradish peroxidase from spinal cord to brain stem cell groups in the cat. Neurosci Lett 1:9–14
Kuypers HGJM, Fleming WR, Farinholt JW (1962) Subcorticospinal projections in the rhesus monkey. J Comp Neurol 118:107–137
Ladouceur M, Barbeau H (2000) Functional electrical stimulation-assisted walking for persons with incomplete spinal injuries: longitudinal changes in maximal overground walking speed. Scand J Rehabil Med 22:28–36
Lance JW (1980) The control of muscle tone, reflexes and movement: Robert Wartenberg lecture. Neurology 30:1303–1313
Lance JW, McLeod JC (1981) A physiological approach to clinical neurology, 3rd edn. Butterworths, London
Lankamp DJ (1967) The fibre composition of the Pedunculus Cerebri (Crus Cerebri). Thesis, University of Leiden
Lanuza GM, Gosgnack S, Pierani A, Jessell TM, Goulding M (2004) Genetic identification of spinal interneurons that coordinate left-right locomotor activity necessary for walking movements. Neuron 42:375–386
Laplane D, Talairach J, Meiniger V, Bancaud J, Bouchareine A (1977) Motor consequences of motor area ablations in man. J Neurol Sci 31:29–49
Lassek AM (1954) The pyramidal tract: its status in medicine. Thomas, Springfield
Lassek A, Rasmussen GL (1940) A comparative and numerical analysis of the pyramidal tract. J Comp Neurol 72:417–428
Lawrence DG, Kuypers HGJM (1968a) The functional organization of the motor system in the monkey. I. The effects of bilateral pyramidal lesions. Brain 91:1–14
Lawrence DG, Kuypers HGJM (1968b) The functional organization of the motor system in the monkey. II The effects of lesions of the descending brain-stem pathways. Brain 91:15–33
Leblond H, Menard A, Gossard JP (2001) Corticospinal control of locomotor pathways generating extensor activities in the cat. Exp Brain Res 138:173–184
Leestma JE, Noronha A (1976) Pure motor hemiplegia, medullary pyramid lesion, and olivary hypertrophy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 39:877–884
Leichnetz GR (1982) Connections between the frontal eye field and pretectum in the monkey: an anterograde/retrograde study using HRP gel and TMB neurohistochemistry. J Comp Neurol 207:394–402
Leichnetz GR, Spencer RF, Smith DJ (1984) Cortical projections to nuclei adjacent to the oculomotor complex in the medial dien-mesencephalic tegmentum in the monkey. J Comp Neurol 228:359–387
Leiguarda R (2005) Apraxias as traditionally defined. In: Freund H-J, Jeannerod M, Hallett M, Leiguarda R (eds) Higher-order motor disorders: from neuroanatomy and neurobiology to clinical neurobiology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 303–338
Leiguarda R, Marsden CD (2000) Limb apraxias: higher-order disorders of sensorimotor integration. Brain 123:860–879
Lemon RN (2008) Descending pathways in motor control. Annu Rev Neurosci 31:195–218
Lemon RN, Johansson RS, Westling G (1995) Corticospinal control during reach, grasp, and precision lift in man. J Neurosci 16:6145–6156
Lemon R, Sasaki S, Naito K, Yoshimura K, Isa T, Seki K, Pettersson L-G et al (2004) Corticomotoneuronal system and dexterous finger movements. J Neurophysiol 92:3601–3603
Lemon RN, Landau W, Tutssel D, Lawrence DG (2012) Lawrence and Kuypers (1968a, b) revisited: copies of the original filmed material from their classic papers in Brain. Brain 138:2290–2295
Leyton SSF, Sherrington CS (1917) Observations on the excitable cortex of the chimpanzee, orangutan and gorilla. Q J Exp Physiol 11:135–222
Liddell EGT, Sherrington CS (1925) Further observations on myotatic reflexes. Proc R Soc Lond B 97:267–283
Liepmann H (1908) Drei Aufsätze aus dem Apraxiegebiet. Karger, Berlin
Liu CN, Chambers WW (1964) An experimental study of the cortico-spinal system in the monkey (Macaca mulatta). The spinal pathways and preterminal distribution of degenerating fibers following discrete lesions of the pre- and postcentral gyri and bulbar pyramid. J Comp Neurol 123:257–284
Lorson CL, Strasswimmer J, Yao J-M, Baleja JD, Hahnen F, Wirth B et al (1998) SMN oligomerization defect correlates with spinal muscular atrophy severity. Nat Genet 19:63–68
Lowe J, Lennox G, Leigh PN (1997) Disorders of movement and system degeneration. In: Graham DI, Lantos PL (eds) Greenfield’s neuropathology, vol 2, 6th edn. Arnold, London, pp 281–366
Lu DC, Niu T, Alaynick WA (2015) Molecular and cellular development of spinal cord locomotor circuitry. Front Mol Neurosci 8:25
Luccarini P, Gahery Y, Pompeiano O (1990) Cholinoceptive pontine reticular structures modify the postural adjustments during the limb movements induced by cortical stimulation. Arch Ital Biol 128:19–45
Lundberg A (1979) Multisensory control of spinal reflex pathways. Prog Brain Res 50:11–28
Lundberg A (1982) Inhibitory control from the brain stem of transmission from primary afferent terminals and ascending pathways. In: Sjölund B, Björklund A (eds) Brain stem control of spinal mechanisms. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 179–224
Macefield G, Gandevia SC, Burke D (1989) Conduction velocities of muscle and cutaneous afferents in the upper and lower limbs of human subjects. Brain 112:1519–1532
Maertens de Noordhout A, Rapisarda G, Bogacz D, Gérard P, De Pasqua V, Pennisi G, Delwaide PJ (1999) Corticomotoneuronal synaptic connections in normal man. An electrophysiological study. Brain 122:1327–1340
Maier MA, Illert M, Kirkwood PA, Nielsen J, Lemon RN (1998) Does a C3-C4 propriospinal system transmit corticospinal excitation in the primate? An investigation in the macaque monkey. J Physiol Lond 511:191–212
Maier MA, Armand J, Kirkwood PA, Yang HW, Davis JN, Lemon RN (2002) Differences in the corticospinal projection from primary motor cortex and supplementary motor area to macaque upper limb motoneurons: an anatomical and electrophysiological study. Cereb Cortex 12:281–296
Marchand-Pauvert V, Mazevet D, Pradat-Diehl P, Alstermark B, Pierrot-Deseilligny E (2001) Interruption of a relay of corticospinal excitation by a spinal lesion at C6-C7. Muscle Nerve 24:1554–1561
Marsden CD, Merton PA, Morton HB (1981) Human postural responses. Brain 104:513–534
Marsden CD, Rothwell JC, Day BL (1984) The use of peripheral feedback in the control of movement. Trends Neurosci 7:253–257
Marshall RS, Perera GM, Lazar RM, Krakauer JW, Constantine RC, DeLaPaz RL (2000) Evolution of cortical activation during recovery from corticospinal tract infarction. Stroke 31:656–661
Marti E, Bovolenta P (2002) Sonic hedgehog in CNS development: one signal, multiple outputs. Trends Neurosci 25:89–96
Martin GF, Cabana T, Humbertson AO (1981) Evidence for collateral innervation of the cervical and lumbar enlargements of the spinal cord by single reticular and raphe neurons. Studies using fluorescent markers in double-labeling experiments on the north Americal opossum. Neurosci Lett 24:1–6
Martin GF, Cabana T, DiTirro FJ, Ho RH, Humbertson AO (1982a) Reticular and raphe projections to the spinal cord of the north American opossum: evidence for connectional heterogeneity. Prog Brain Res 57:107–129
Martin GF, Cabana T, DiTitto FJ, Ho RH, Humbertson AO (1982b) Raphespinal projections in the North American opossum: evidence for functional heterogeneity. J Comp Neurol 208:67–84
Martin GF, Vertes RP, Waltzer R (1985) Spinal projections of the gigantocellular reticular formation in the rat. Evidence for projections from different areas to lamina I and II and lamina IX. Exp Brain Res 58:154–162
Masdeu JC, Alampur U, Cavaliere R, Tavoulareas G (1994) Astasia and gait failure with damage of the pontomesencephalic locomotor region. Ann Neurol 35:619–621
Matelli M, Luppino G, Rizzolatti G (1985) Patterns of cytochrome oxidase activity in the frontal agranular cortex of the macaque monkey. Behav Brain Res 18:125–136
Matelli M, Camarda R, Glickstein M, Rizzolatti G (1986) Afferent and efferent projections of the inferior area 6 in the macaque monkey. J Comp Neurol 251:281–298
Matelli M, Luppino G, Rizzolatti G (1991) Architecture of superior and mesial area 6 and the adjacent cingulate cortex in the macaque monkey. J Comp Neurol 311:445–463
Matelli M, Luppino G, Geyer S, Zilles K (2004) Motor cortex. In: Paxinos G, Mai JK (eds) The human nervous system, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 973–996
Matsushita M, Ikeda M, Hosoya Y (1979) The location of spinal neurons with long descending axons (long descending propriospinal tract neurons) in the cat: a study with the horseradish peroxidase technique. J Comp Neurol 184:63–80
Matthews PBC (1972) Mammalian muscle receptors and their central actions. Arnold, London
Matthews PBC (1981) Muscle spindles: their messages and fusimotor supply. In: Brooks VB (ed) Handbook of physiology, sect 1: the nervous system, Motor systems, vol II. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, pp 189–228
McCurdy ML, Hansma DI, Houk JC, Gibson AR (1987) Selective projections from the cat red nucleus to digit motor neurons. J Comp Neurol 265:367–379
McKeon B, Burke D (1983) Muscle spindle discharge in response to contraction of single motor units. J Neurophysiol 49:291–302
Mestrom LHJ (1911) Variaties in de pyramidenkruising Thesis, University of Amsterdam. Van Langenhuysen, Amsterdam (in Dutch)
Meyer JS, Herndon RM (1962) Bilateral infarction of the pyramidal tracts in man. Neurology 12:637–642
Miller S, van der Burg J, van der Meché FGA (1975) Coordination of movements of the hindlimbs and forelimbs in different forms of locomotion in normal and decerebrate cats. Brain Res 91:217–237
Moffie D, Ongerboer de Visser BW, van der Sande JJ (1979) “Pure motor hemiplegia”; de plaatsbepaling van de piramidebaan in de capsula interna. Ned T Geneesk 123:822–825. (in Dutch)
Molenaar I, Kuypers HGJM (1978) Cells of origin of propriospinal fibers and of fibers ascending to supraspinal levels. A HRP study in cat and rhesus monkey. Brain Res 152:429–450
Molenaar I, Rustioni A, Kuypers HGJM (1974) The location of cells of origin of the fibers in the ventral and the lateral funiculus of the cat’s lumbosacral cord. Brain Res 78:239–254
Moll L (1984) Over de mogelijke rol van de premotorische cortex, de ventrolaterale thalamuskern en de colliculus superior bij de visuele sturing van onafhankelijke hand- en vingerbewegingen. Thesis, Erasmus University Rotterdam (in Dutch)
Moll L, Kuypers HGJM (1977) Premotor cortical ablations in monkeys: contralateral changes in visually guided reaching behavior. Science 198:317–319
Moran-Rivard L, Kagawa T, Saueressig H, Gross MK, Burrill J, Goulding M (2001) Evx1 is a postmitotic determinant of V0 interneuron identity in the spinal cord. Neuron 29:385–399
Morecraft RJ, Louie JL, Herrick JL, Stilwell-Morecraft KS (2001) Cortical innervation of the facial nucleus in the non-human primate. A new interpretation of the effects of stroke and related subtotal brain trauma on the muscles of facial expression. Brain 124:176–208
Morecraft RJ, Herrick JL, Stilwell-Morecraft KS, Louie JL, Schroeder CM, Ottenbacher JG, Schoolfield MW (2002) Localization of arm representation in the corona radiata and internal capsule in the non-human primate. Brain 125:176–198
Mori S (1987) Integration of posture and locomotion in acute decerebrate cats and in awake, freely moving cats. Prog Neurobiol 28:161–195
Mori S (1989) Contribution of postural muscle tone to full expression of posture and locomotor movements: multifaceted analysis of its setting brainstem – spinal cord mechanisms in the cat. Jpn J Physiol 39:785–809
Mori S, Shik ML, Yadodnitsyn AS (1977) Role of pontine tegmentum for locomotor control in mesencephalic cat. J Neurophysiol 40:284–295
Mott FW, Sherrington CS (1895) Experiments upon the influence of sensory nerves upon movement and nutrition of the limbs. Proc R Soc Lond 57:481–488
Mumenthaler M (1983) Neurologische Differentialdiagnostik, 2. Aufl. Thieme, Stuttgart
Mumenthaler M, Schliack H (1982) Läsionen peripherer Nerven, 4. Aufl. Thieme, Stuttgart
Murray EA, Coulter JD (1981) Organization of corticospinal neurons in the monkey. J Comp Neurol 195:339–365
Nakajima K, Maier MA, Kirkwood PA, Lemon RN (2000) Striking differences in transmission of corticospinal excitation to upper limb motoneurons in two primate species. J Neurophysiol 84:698–709
Nakamura H, Kitagawa H, Kawaguchi Y, Tsuji H (1996) Direct and indirect activation of human corticospinal neurons by transcranial magnetic and electrical stimulation. Neurosci Lett 210:45–48
Nathan PW (1994) Effects on movement of surgical incisions into the human spinal cord. Brain 117:337–346
Nathan PW, Smith MC (1955) Long descending tracts in man. I. Review of present knowledge. Brain 78:248–303
Nathan PW, Smith MC (1959) Fasciculi proprii of the spinal cord in man: review of present knowledge. Brain 82:610–668
Nathan PW, Smith MC (1982) The rubrospinal and central tegmental tracts in man. Brain 105:223–269
Nathan PW, Smith MC, Deacon P (1990) The corticospinal tracts in man. Course and location of fibres at different segmental levels. Brain 113:303–324
Nathan PW, Smith MC, Deacon P (1996) Vestibulospinal, reticulospinal and descending propriospinal nerve fibres in man. Brain 119:1809–1833
Newton JM, Ward NS, Parker GJM, Deichmann R, Alexander DC, Friston KJ, Frackowiak RSJ (2006) Non-invasive mapping of corticofugal fibres from multiple motor areas in relevance to stroke recovery. Brain 129:1844–1858
Nielsen JB (2016) Human spinal motor control. Annu Rev Neurosci 39:81–101
Nielsen J, Pierrot-Deseilligny E (1991) Pattern of cutaneous inhibition of the propriospinal-like excitation to human upper limb motoneurons. J Physiol Lond 434:169–182
Norman MG, McGillivray BC, Kalousek DK, Hill A, Poskin KJ (1995) Congenital malformations of the brain. Pathologic, embryologic, clinical, radiologic and genetic aspects. Oxford University Press, New York
Nudo RJ, Masterton RB (1988) Descending pathways to the spinal cord: a comparative study of 22 mammals. J Comp Neurol 277:53–79
Nudo RJ, Masterton RB (1990) Descending pathways to the spinal cord, III: sites of origin of the corticospinal tract. J Comp Neurol 296:559–583
Nyberg-Hansen R, Rinvik E (1963) Some comments on the pyramidal tracts, with special reference to its individual variations in man. Acta Neurol Scand 39:1–30
O’Rahilly R (1986) Gardner – Gray – O’Rahilly anatomy. A regional study of human structure, 5th edn. Saunders, Philadelphia
Op de Coul AAW (1970) De atrofie van de kleine handspieren. Thesis, University of Amsterdam (in Dutch; published in 1971 as Handspieratrofie by Stenfert Kroese, Leiden)
Orlovsky GN, Deliagina TG, Grillner S (1999) Neuronal control of locomotion: from Molluscs to man. Oxford University Press, New York
Padberg J, Franca JG, Cooke F, Soares JGM, Rosa MGP, Fiorani M et al (2007) Parallel evolution of cortical areas involved in skilled hand use. J Neurosci 27:10106–10115
Padel Y, Angaut P, Massion J, Sedan R (1981) Comparative study of the posterior red nucleus in baboons and gibbons. J Comp Neurol 202:421–438
Pang MY, Yang JF (2000) The initiation of the swing phase in human infant stepping: importance of hip position and leg loading. J Physiol Lond 528:389–404
Pang MY, Yang JF (2001) Interlimb co-ordination in human infant stepping. J Physiol Lond 533:617–625
Pascual-Leone A, Walsh V (2002) Transcranial magnetic stimulation. In: Toga AW, Mazziotta JC (eds) Brain mapping: the methods, 2nd edn. Academic, San Diego, pp 255–290
Pauvert V, Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Rothwell JC (1998) Role of spinal motoneurones in mediating corticospinal input to forearm motoneurones in man. J Physiol Lond 508:301–312
Pearson KG (2004) Generating the walking gait: role of sensory feedback. Prog Brain Res 143:123–129
Pearson KG, Misiaszek JE, Fouad K (1998) Enhancement and resetting of locomotor activity by muscle afferents. Ann N Y Acad Sci 860:203–215
Penfield W, Boldrey E (1937) Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man as studied by electrical stimulation. Brain 6:389–443
Penfield W, Jasper HH (1954) Epilepsy and the functional anatomy of the human brain. Little, Brown, Boston
Penfield W, Rasmussen T (1950) The cerebral cortex of man. Macmillan, New York
Peter JB, Barnard RJ, Edgerton VR, Gillespie CA, Stempel KE (1972) Metabolic profiles of three fiber types of skeletal muscles in Guinea pigs and rabbits. Biochemistry 11:2627
Peterson BW, Fukushima K (1982) The reticulospinal system and its role in generating vestibular and visuomotor reflexes. In: Sjölund B, Björklund A (eds) Brain stem control of spinal mechanisms. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 225–251s
Petras JM, Cummings JF (1972) Autonomic neurons in the spinal cord of the rhesus monkey: a correlation of the findings of cytoarchitectonics and sympathectomy with fiber degeneration following dorsal rhizotomy. J Comp Neurol 146:189–218
Petrides M (1982) Motor conditional associative-learning after selective prefrontal lesions in the monkey. Behav Brain Res 5:407–413
Petrides M (1985) Deficits on conditional associative-learning tasks after frontal- and temporal-lobe lesions in man. Neuropsychologia 23:601–614
Petrides M (1986) The effect of periarcuate lesions in the monkey on the performance of symmetrically and asymmetrically reinforced visual and auditory go, no-go tasks. J Neurosci 6:2054–2063
Petrides M (1997) Visuo-motor-conditional associative learning after frontal and temporal lesions in the human brain. Neuropsychologia 35:989–997
Picard N, Strick PL (1996) Medial wall motor areas: a review of their location and functional activation. Cereb Cortex 6:342–353
Picard N, Strick PL (2001) Imaging the premotor areas. Curr Opin Neurobiol 11:663–672
Pick A (1890) Ueber ein abnormes Bündel der menschlichen Medulla oblongata. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 21:636–640
Pierani A, Brenner-Morton S, Chiang C, Jessell TM (1999) A tonic Hedgehog-independent, retinoid-activated pathway of neurogenesis in the ventral spinal cord. Cell 97:903–915
Pierani A, Moran-Rivard L, Sunshine MJ, Littman DR, Goulding M, Jessell TM (2001) Control of interneuron fate in the developing spinal cord by the progenitor homeodomain protein Dbx1. Neuron 29:367–384
Pierrot-Deseilligny E (1996) Transmission of the cortical command for human voluntary movement through cervical premotoneurones. Prog Neurobiol 48:489–517
Pierrot-Deseilligny E (2002) Propriospinal transmission of part of the corticospinal excitation in humans. Muscle Nerve 26:155–172
Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Burke D (2005) The circuitry of the human spinal cord. Its role in motor control and movement disorders. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Pineiro R, Pendlebury ST, Smith S, Flitney D, Blamire AM, Styles P, Mathews PM (2000) Relating MRI changes to motor deficit after ischemic stroke by segmentation of functional motor pathways. Stroke 31:672–679
Porter R, Lemon RN (1993) Corticospinal function and voluntary movement. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Pratt CA, Fung J, Macpherson JM (1994) Stance control in the chronic spinal cat. J Neurophysiol 71:1981–1985
Prochazka A, Hulliger M (1983) Muscle afferent function and its significance for motor control mechanisms during voluntary movements in cat, monkey, and man. Adv Neurol 39:93–132
Proske U (1981) The Golgi tendon organ. Properties of the receptor and reflex action of impulses arising from tendon organs. Int Rev Physiol 25:127–171
Puvanendran K, Wong PK, Ransome GA (1978) Syndrome of Dejerine’s fourth Reich. Acta Neurol Scand 57:349–353
Rabe Bernhardt N, Memic F, Gezelius H, Thiebes A-J, Vallstedt A, Kullander K (2012) DCC mediated axon guidance of spinal interneurons is essential for normal locomotor central pattern generator function. Dev Biol 366:279–289
Rabe N, Gezelius H, Vallstedt A, Memic F, Kullander K (2009) Netrin-1-dependent spinal interneuron subtypes are required for the formation of left-right alternating locomotor circuitry. J Neurosci 29:15642–15649
Rademacher J, Caviness VS, Steinmetz H, Galaburda AM (1993) Topographical variation of the human primary cortices: implications for neuroimaging, brain mapping, and neurobiology. Cereb Cortex 3:313–329
Rademacher J, Bürgel U, Geyer S, Schormann T, Schleicher A, Freund H-J, Zilles K (2001) Variability and asymmetry in the human precentral motor system. A cytoarchitectonic and myeloarchitectonic brain mapping study. Brain 124:2232–2258
Ralston DD, Ralston HJ (1985) The terminations of corticospinal tract axons in the macaque monkey. J Comp Neurol 242:325–337
Rascol A, Clanet M, Manelfe C, Guiraud B, Bonafe A (1982) Pure motor hemiplegia: CT study of 30 cases. Stroke 13:11–17
Rathelot J-A, Strick PL (2006) Muscle representation in the macaque motor cortex: an anatomical perspective. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:8257–8262
Renshaw B (1941) Influence of discharge of motoneurons upon excitation of neighbouring motoneurons. J Neurophysiol 4:167–183
Riddoch G (1917) The reflex function of the completely divided spinal cord in man, compared with those associated with less severe lesions. Brain 40:264–402
Rizzolatti G, Luppino G (2001) The cortical motor system. Neuron 31:889–901
Rizzolatti G, Luppino G, Matelli M (1998) The organization of the cortical motor system: new concepts. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 106:283–296
Rizzolatti G, Fogassi L, Gallese V (2002) Motor and cognitive functions of the ventral premotor cortex. Curr Opin Neurobiol 12:149–154
Roessmann U, Hori A (1985) Agyria (lissencephaly) with anomalous pyramidal crossing: case report and review of literature. J Neurol Sci 69:357–364
Roland PE, Zilles K (1996) Functions and structures of the motor cortices in humans. Curr Opin Neurobiol 6:773–781
Romanes GJ (1951) The motor cell columns of the lumbosacral spinal cord of the cat. J Comp Neurol 94:313–364
Romanes GJ (1964) Motor pools of the spinal cord. Prog Brain Res 11:93–119
Rondot P, de Recondo J, Ribadeau Dumas JL (1977) Visuomotor ataxia. Brain 100:355–376
Ropper AH, Fisher CM, Kleinman GM (1979) Pyramidal infarction in the medulla: a cause of pure motor hemiplegia sparing the face. Neurology 29:91–95
Rosenzweig ES, Brock JH, Culbertson MD, Lu P, Moseanho R, Edgerton VR et al (2009) Extensive spinal decussation and bilateral termination of cervical corticospinal projections in rhesus monkeys. J Comp Neurol 513:151–163
Ross ED (1980) Localization of the pyramidal tract in the internal capsule by whole brain dissection. Neurology 30:59–64
Rossignol S (1996) Neural control of stereotypic limb movements. In: Rowell LB, Sheperd JT (eds) Handbook of physiology, sect 12: exercise: regulation and integration of multiple systems. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 173–216
Rossignol S (2000) Locomotion and its recovery after spinal injury. Curr Opin Neurobiol 10:708–716
Rossignol S (2006) Plasticity in the injured spinal cord. In: Selzer ME, Clarke S, Cohen LG, Duncan PW, Gage FH (eds) Textbook of neural repair and rehabilitation, vol I. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 209–227
Rossignol S, Dubuc R, Gossard J-P (2006) Dynamic sensorimotor interactions in locomotion. Physiol Rev 86:89–154
Rothwell J (1994) Control of human voluntary movement, 2nd edn. Chapman & Hall, London
Rothwell JC, Traub MM, Day BL, Obeso JA, Thomas PK, Marsden JC (1982) Manual motor performance in a deafferented man. Brain 105:515–542
Rothwell JC, Thompson PD, Day BL, Dick JPR, Kachi T, Cowan JMA, Marsden CD (1987) Motor cortex stimulation in intact man. I. General characteristics of EMG responses in different muscles. Brain 110:1173–1190
Rothwell JC, Gandevia SC, Burke D (1990) Activation of fusimotor neurones by motor cortical stimulation in human subjects. J Physiol Lond 431:743–756
Rothwell JC, Thompson PD, Day BL, Boyd S, Marsden CD (1991) Stimulation of the human motor cortex through the scalp. Exp Physiol 76:159–200
Rouiller EM, Babalian A, Kazennikov O, Moret V, Yu X-H, Wiesendanger M (1994) Transcallosal connections of the distal forelimb representations of the primary and supplementary motor cortical areas in macaque monkeys. Exp Brain Res 102:227–243
Rouiller EM, Moret V, Tanné J, Boussaoud D (1996) Evidence for direct connections between the hand region of the supplementary motor area and cervical motoneurons in the macaque monkey. Eur J Neurosci 8:1055–1059
Ruan J, Bludau S, Palomero-Gallagher N, Caspers S, Mohlberg H, Eickhoff SB et al (2018) Cytoarchitecture, probabilistic maps, and functions of the human supplementary and pre-supplementary motor areas. Brain Struct Funct 223:4169–4186
Ruiz i Altaba A, Nguyên V, Palma V (2003) The emergent design of the neural tube: Prepattern, SHH morphogen and GLI code. Curr Opin Genet Dev 13:513–523
Rustioni AA, Kuypers HGJM, Holstege G (1971) Propriospinal projections from the ventral and lateral funiculi to the motoneurons in the lumbosacral cord of the cat. Brain Res 34:255–275
Sack AT (2006) Transcranial magnetic stimulation, causal structure-function mapping and networks of functional relevance. Curr Opin Neurobiol 16:593–599
Sanes JN, Mauritz K-H, Dalakas MC, Evarts EV (1985) Motor control in humans with large-fiber sensory neuropathy. Hum Neurobiol 4:104–114
Sanes JN, Donoghue JP, Thangaraj V, Edelman RR, Warach S (1995) Shared neural substrates controlling hand movements in human motor cortex. Science 268:1775–1777
Sasaki S, Isa T, Pettersson L-G, Aslstermark B, Naito K, Yoshimura K et al (2004) Dexterous finger movements in primate without monosynaptic corticomotoneuronal excitation. J Neurophysiol 92:3142–3147
Saueressig H, Burrill J, Goulding M (1999) Engrailed-1 and netrin-1 regulate axon pathfinding by association interneurons that project to motor neurons. Development 126:4201–4212
Schaechter JD, Perdue KL, Wang R (2008) Structural damage to the corticospinal tract correlates with bilateral sensorimotor cortex reorganization in stroke patients. NeuroImage 39:1370–1381
Schneider C, Lavoie B, Capaday C (2000) On the origin of the soleus H-reflex modulation pattern during human walking and its task-dependent differences. J Neurophysiol 83:2881–2890
Schoen JHR (1964) Comparative aspects of the descending fibre systems in the spinal cord. Prog Brain Res 11:203–222
Schoen JHR (1969) The corticofugal projection on the brain stem and spinal cord in man. Psychiatr Neurol Neurochir 72:121–128
Schomburg ED (1990) Spinal sensory systems and their supraspinal control. Neurosci Res 7:265–340
Schubert M, Curt A, Jensen L, Dietz V (1997) Corticospinal input in human gait: modulation of magnetically evoked motor responses. Exp Brain Res 115:234–246
Schubert M, Curt A, Colombo G, Berger W (1999) Voluntary control of human gait: conditioning of magnetically evoked motor responses in a precision stepping task. Exp Brain Res 126:583–588
Schwartzmann RJ (1978) A behavioral analysis of complete unilateral section of the pyramidal tract at the medullary level in M. mulatta. Ann Neurol 4:234–244
Seitz R, Haflich R, Binkofski F, Tellmann L, Herzog H, Freund H-J (1998) Role of the premotor cortex in recovery from middle cerebral artery syndrome. Arch Neurol 55:1081–1088
Selionov VA, Shik ML (1984) Medullary locomotor strip and column in the cat. Neuroscience 13:1267–1278
Sellers JR (2000) Myosins: a diverse superfamily. Biochem Biophys Acta Mol Cell Res 1496:3–22
Serrien DJ, Strens LH, Oliviero A, Brown P (2002) Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the supplementary motor area (SMA) degrades bimanual movement control in humans. Neurosci Lett 328:89–92
Shapovalov AI (1975) Neuronal organization and synaptic mechanisms of supraspinal motor control in vertebrates. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 72:1–54
Sharrard WJ (1955) The distribution of the permanent paralysis in the lower limb in poliomyelitis. J Bone Joint Surg Br 37:540–558
Shefchyk SJ, Jordan LM (1985) Excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic potentials in alpha-motoneurons produced during fictive locomotion by stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region. J Neurophysiol 53:1345–1355
Shik ML, Orlovsky GN (1976) Neurophysiology of locomotor automatism. Physiol Rev 56:465–501
Shik ML, Severin FV, Orlovsky GN (1966) Control of walking and running by means of electrical stimulation of the mid-brain. Biophysics 11:756–766. (English translation of Biofizika 11:659–666)
Shik ML, Severin FV, Orlovsky GN (1967) Structure of the brain stem responsible for evoked locomotion. Sechenov Physiol J USSR 53:1125–1132. (in Russian)
Shinoda Y, Zarzecki P, Asanuma H (1979) Spinal branching of pyramidal tract neurons in the monkey. Exp Brain Res 34:59–72
Shinoda Y, Yokota JI, Futami T (1981) Divergent projection of individual corticospinal axons to motoneurons of multiple muscles in the monkey. Neurosci Lett 23:7–12
Sie Pek Giok (1956) Localization of fibre systems within the white matter of the medulla oblongata and the cervical cord in man. Thesis, University of Leiden. Eduard IJdo, Leiden
Sie Pek Giok (1958) The fasciculus intermediolateralis of Loewenthal in man. Brain 81:577–587
Simić G, Mladinov M, Seso Simić D, Jovanov-Milošević N, Islam A, Pajtak A et al (2008) Abnormal motoneuron migration, differentiation and axon outgrowth in spinal muscular atrophy. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 115:313–326
Sjöström M, Downham DY, Lexell J (1986) Distribution of different fiber types in human skeletal muscles: why is there a difference within a fascicle? Muscle Nerve 9:30–36
Smith MC, Deacon P (1981) Helweg’s triangular tract in man. Brain 104:249–277
Snijders AH, van de Warrenburg BP, Giladi N, Bloem BR (2007) Neurological gait disorders in elderly people: clinical approach and classification. Lancet Neurol 6:63–74
Sprague JM (1948) A study of motor cell localization in the spinal cord of the rhesus monkey. Am J Anat 82:1–26
Sprague JM, Ha H (1964) The terminal fields of dorsal root fibers in the lumbosacral spinal cord of the cat and the dendritic organization of the motor nuclei. Prog Brain Res 11:120–154
Stålberg E, Schwartz MS, Thiele B, Schiller HH (1976) The normal motor unit in man. A single fibre EMG multielectrode investigation in man. J Neurol Sci 27:291–301
Stephan KM, Binkofski F, Halsband U, Dohle C, Wunderlich G, Schnitzler A et al (1999) The role of ventral medial wall motor areas in bimanual co-ordination. A combined lesion and activation study. Brain 122:351–368
Sterling P, Kuypers HGJM (1968) Anatomical organization of the brachial spinal cord of the cat. III. The propriospinal connections. Brain Res 7:419–443
Swank RL (1934) The relationship between the circumolivary pyramidal fascicles and the pontobulbar body in man. J Comp Neurol 60:309–317
Swash M, Fox KP (1972) Muscle spindle innervation in man. J Anat 112:61–80
Takeoka A, Vollenweider I, Courtine G, Arber S (2014) Muscle spindle feedback directs locomotor recovery and circuit reorganization after spinal cord inhjury. Cell 159:1626–1639
Talairach J, Bancaud J (1966) The supplementary motor area in man. Int J Neurol 5:330–347
Tanji J (1996) New concepts of the supplementary motor area. Curr Opin Neurobiol 6:782–787
Tanji J, Okano K, Sato KC (1988) Neuronal activity in cortical motor areas related to ipsilateral, contralateral, and bilateral digit movements of the monkey. J Neurophysiol 60:325–343
Taylor RG, Gleave JRW (1957) Incomplete spinal cord injuries (with Brown-Séquard phenomenon). J Bone Joint Surg Br 39:438–450
ten Donkelaar HJ, Lammens M, Wesseling P, Hori A, Keyser A, Rotteveel J (2004) Development and malformations of the human pyramidal tract. J Neurol 251:1429–1442
ten Donkelaar HJ, Lohman AHM, Keyser A, van der Vliet AM (2007) Het centrale zenuwstelsel. In: ten Donkelaar HJ, Lohman AHM, Moorman AFM (eds) Klinische Anatomie en Embryologie, 3rd edn. Elsevier, Maarssen, pp 981–1141. (in Dutch)
ten Donkelaar HJ, Itoh K, Hori A (2014) Development and developmental disorders of the spinal cord. In: ten Donkelaar HJ, Lammens M, Hori A (eds) Clinical Neuroembryology: development and developmental disorders of the human nervous system, 2nd edn. Springer, Heidelberg-New York-Dordrecht-London, pp 271–320
ten Donkelaar HJ, Broman J, Neumann PE, Puelles L, Riva A, Tubbs RS, Kachlik D (2017) Towards a Terminologia Neuroanatomica. Clin Anat 30:145–155
ten Donkelaar HJ, Kachlik D, Tubbs RS (2018) An illustrated Terminologia Neuroanatomica: a concise encyclopedia of human neuroanatomy. Springer, Cham
Terao S, Takatsu S, Izumi M, Takagi J, Mitsuma T, Takahashi A et al (1997) Central facial weakness due to medial medullary infarction: the course of facial corticobulbar fibres. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 63:391–393
Terao S, Miura N, Takeda A, Takahashi A, Mitsuma T, Sobue G (2000) Course and distribution of facial corticobulbar tract fibres in the lower brain stem. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 69:262–265
Thompson PD, Day BL, Crockard HA, Calder I, Murray NMF, Rothwell JC (1991) Intra-operative recording of motor tract potentials at the cervico-medullary junction following scalp electrical and magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 54:618–623
TNA (2017) Terminologia Neuroanatomica. FIPAT.library.dal.ca. Federative International Programme for Anatomical Terminology
Tohyama M, Sakai K, Salvert D, Touret M, Jouvet M (1979a) Spinal projections from the lower brain stem in the cat as demonstrated by the HRP technique. I. Origins of the reticulospinal tracts and their funicular trajectories. Brain Res 173:383–403
Tohyama M, Sakai K, Salvert D, Touret M, Jouvet M (1979b) Spinal projections from the lower brain stem in the cat as demonstrated by the HRP technique. II. Projections from the dorsal pontine tegmentum and raphe nuclei. Brain Res 176:215–231
Tokuno H, Tanji J (1993) Input organization of distal and proximal forelimb areas in the monkey primary motor cortex: a retrograde double labeling study. J Comp Neurol 333:199–209
Tomassini V, Jbabdi S, Klein JC, Behrens TEJ, Mackay CE, Matthews PM et al (2007) Diffusion-weighted imaging tractography-based parcellation of the human lateral premotor cortex identifies dorsal and ventral subregions with anatomical and functional specializations. J Neurosci 27:10259–10269
Tower SS (1940) Pyramidal lesion in the monkey. Brain 63:36–90
Toyoshima K, Sakai H (1982) Exact cortical extent of the origin of the corticospinal tract (CST) and the quantitative contribution to the CST in different cytoarchitectonic areas. A study with horseradish peroxidase in the monkey. J Hirnforsch 23:257–269
Urban PP, Hopf HC, Connemann B, Hundemer HP, Koehler J (1996) The course of cortico-hypoglossal projections in the human brainstem. Functional testing using transcranial magnetic stimulation. Brain 119:1031–1038
Urban PP, Wicht S, Vucorevic G, Fitzek S, Marx J, Thömke F et al (2001) The course of corticofacial projections in the human brainstem. Brain 124:1866–1876
Van de Crommert HWAA, Mulder T, Duysens J (1998) Neural control of locomotion: sensory control of the central pattern generator and its relation to treadmill training. Gait Posture 7:251–263
Verhaart WJC (1934) Zehn Fällen des Pickschen Bündels. Psychiatr Neurol Bl 38:85–95
Verhaart WJC (1935) Die aberrierenden Pyramidenfasern bei Menschen und Affen. Schweiz Arch Neurol 36:170–190
Verhaart WJC (1948) The pes pedunculi and pyramid. J Comp Neurol 88:139–155
Verhaart WJC (1970) Conparative anatomical aspects of the mammalian brain stem and spinal cord. Van Gorcum, Assen
Verhaart WJC, Kramer W (1952) The uncrossed pyramidal tract. Acta Psychiatr Neurol Scand 27:181–190
Vilensky JA, O’Connor BL (1998) Stepping in nonhuman primates with a complete spinal cord transection: old and new data, and implications for humans. Ann N Y Acad Sci 860:528–530
Vogt C, Vogt O (1919) Allgemeinere Ergebnisse unserer Hirnforschung. J Psychol Neurol (Lpz) 25:279–461
Vogt BA, Nimchinsky EA, Vogt LJ, Hof PR (1995) Human cingulate cortex: surface features, flat maps, and cytoarchitectonics. J Comp Neurol 359:490–506
Vogt BA, Hof PR, Vogt LJ (2004) Cingulate gyrus. In: Paxinos G, Mai JK (eds) The human nervous system, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 915–949
Volkmann J, Schnitzler A, Witte OW, Freund H-J (1998) Handedness and asymmetry of hand representation in human motor cortex. J Neurophysiol 79:2149–2154
von Monakow C (1909) Der rote Kern, die Haube und die Regio hypothalamica bei einigen Säugetieren und beim Menschen. I. Teil: Anatomisches und Experimentelles. Arb Hirnanat Inst Zürich 3:49–267
von Monakow C (1910) Der rote Kern, die Haube und die Regio hypothalamica bei einigen Säugetieren und beim Menschen. II. Teil: Pathologische-anatomische Untersuchungen beim Menschen. Arb Hirnanat Inst Zürich 4:103–225
Vorobiev V, Govoni P, Rizzolatti G, Matelli M, Luppino G (1998) Parcellation of human mesial area 6: cytoarchitectonic evidence for three separate areas. Eur J Neurosci 19:2199–2203
Voss VH (1937) Untersuchungen über Zahl, Anordnung and Länge der Muskelspindeln in den Lumbrikalmuskeln des Menschen und einiger Tiere. Z Mikrosk-Anat Forsch 42:509–524
Voss VH (1971) Tabelle der absoluten und relativen Muskelspindelzahlen der menschlichen Skelettmuskulatur. Anat Anz 129:562–572
Walmsley B, Hodgson JA, Burke RE (1978) Forces produced by medial gastrocnemius and soleus muscles during locomotion in freely moving cars. J Neurophysiol 41:1203–1216
Walshe FMR (1948) Clinical studies in neurology. Livingstone, Edinburgh
Wannier T, Bastiaanse CM, Colombo G, Dietz V (2001) Arm to leg coordination in humans during walking, creeping and swimming activities. Exp Brain Res 141:375–379
Ward NS, Newton JM, Swayne OBC, Lee L, Thompson AJ, Greenwood RJ et al (2006) Motor system activation after subcortical stroke depends on corticospinal system integrity. Brain 129:809–819
Wassermann EM, McShane LM, Hallett M, Cohen LG (1992) Non-invasive mapping of muscle representations in human motor cortex. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 85:1–8
Wassermann EM, Wang W, Zeffiro TA, Sadato N, Pascual-Leone A, Toro C, Hallett M (1996) Locating the motor cortex on the MRI with transcranial magnetic stimulation and PET. NeuroImage 3:1–6
Weiller C, Chollet F, Friston KJ, Wise RJS, Frackowiak RSJ (1992) Functional reorganization of the brain in recovery from striatocapsular infarction in man. Ann Neurol 31:463–472
Weiller C, Ramsay SC, Wise RJS, Friston KJ, Frackowiak RSJ (1993) Individual patterns of functional organization in the human cerebral cortex after capsular infarction. Ann Neurol 33:181–189
Wenner P, O’Donovan MJ (1999) Identification of an interneuronal population that mediates recurrent inhibition of motor neurons in the developing chick spinal cord. J Neurosci 19:7557–7567
Wenzelburger R, Kopper F, Frenzel A, Stolze H, Klebe S, Brossmann A et al (2005) Hand coordination following capsular stroke. Brain 128:64–74
Westerhausen R, Huster RJ, Kreuder F, Wittling W, Schweiger E (2007) Corticospinal asymmetries at the level of the internal capsule: is there an association with handedness? NeuroImage 37:379–386
Westlund KN, Coulter JD (1980) Descending projections of the locus coeruleus and subcoeruleus/medial parabrachial nuclei in monkey: axonal transport studies and dopamine-β-hydroxylase immunocytochemistry. Brain Res Rev 2:235–264
Westlund KN, Bowker RM, Ziegler MG, Coulter JD (1982) Descending noradrenergic projections and their spinal terminations. Prog Brain Res 57:219–238
Wieler M, Stein RB, Ladouceur M, Whittaker M, Smith AW, Naaman S et al (1999) Multicenter evaluation of electrical stimulation systems for walking. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 80:495–500
Wiesendanger M, Serrien DJ (2001) Neurological problems affecting hand dexterity. Brain Res Rev 36:161–168
Wiesendanger M, Serrien DJ (2005) Bimanual coordination and its disorders. In: Freund H-J, Jeannerod M, Hallett M, Leiguarda R (eds) Higher-order motor disorders. From neuroanatomy and neurobiology to clinical neurology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 193–236
Wiesendanger M, Rouiller EM, Kazennikov O, Perrig S (1996) Is the supplementary motor area a bilaterally organized system? Adv Neurol 70:85–93
Wilson VJ, Melvill Jones G (1979) Mammalian vestibular physiology. Plenum, New York
Wilson VJ, Peterson BW (1981) Vestibulospinal and reticulospinal systems. In: Brooks VB (ed) Handbook of physiology, sect 1: the nervous system, Motor systems, vol II. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, pp 667–702
Wilson VJ, Peterson BW (1988) Vestibular and reticular projections to the neck. In: Peterson BW, Richmond F (eds) Control of head movements. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 129–140
Winkler C (1926) De bouw van het zenuwstelsel. IV. Bohn, Haarlem, The Netherlands
Woolsey CN, Settlage PH, Meyer DR, Sencer W, Hamuy TP, Travis AM (1952) Patterns of localization in precentral and “supplementary” motor areas and their relation to the concept of a premotor area. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis 30:238–264
Yakovlev PI, Rakic P (1966) Patterns of decussation of bulbar pyramids and distribution of pyramidal tracts on two sides of the spinal cord. Trans Am Neurol Assoc 91:366–367
Yamashita M, Yamamoto T (2001) Aberrant pyramidal tract in the medial lemniscus of the human brainstem: Normal distribution and pathological changes. Eur Neurol 45:75–82
Yang JF, Stephens MJ, Vishram R (1998) Transient disturbances to one limb produce coordinated, bilateral responses during infant stepping. J Neurophysiol 79:2329–2337
Yousry TA, Schmid UD, Alkadhi H, Schmidt D, Peraud A, Buettner A, Winkler P (1997) Localization of the hand motor area to a knob on the precentral gyrus. A new landmark. Brain 120:141–157
Zaaimi B, Edgley SA, Soteropoulos DS, Baker SN (2012) Changes in descending motor pathway connectivity after corticospinal tract lesion in macaque monkey. Brain 135:2277–2289
Zhang Y, Narayan S, Geiman A, Lanuza GM, Velasquez T, Shanks B et al (2008) V3 spinal neurons establish a robust and balanced locomotor rhythm during walking. Neuron 60:84–96
Zickler P, Seitz RJ, Hartung H-P, Hefter H (2005) Bilateral medullary pyramid infarction. Neurology 64:1801
Zilles K, Schlaug G, Geyer S, Luppino G, Matelli M, Qü M et al (1996) Anatomy and transmitter receptors of the supplementary motor areas in the human and non-human primate brain. Adv Neurol 70:29–43
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
ten Donkelaar, H.J. (2020). Motor Systems. In: Clinical Neuroanatomy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41878-6_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41878-6_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-41877-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-41878-6
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)