Abstract
Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a group of 13 diseases, which usually infect the poorest people around the world. Among them, the six most prevalent are caused by helminths: ascariasis, trichuriasis, ancylostomiasis, schistosomiasis, lymphatic filariasis, and oncocercosis [1].
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Hotez PJ, Molyneux DH, Fenwick A, Kumaresan J, Sachs SE, Sachs JD, Savioli L. Control of neglected tropical diseases. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:1018–27.
Hotez PJ, Brindley PJ, Bethony JM, King CH, Pearce EJ, Jacobson J. Helminth infections: the great neglected tropical diseases. J Clin Invest. 2008;118:1311–21.
Hotez P. Hookworm and poverty. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008;1136:38–44.
WHO (2016) What are intestinal worms (soil transmitted helminthiasis)? Available from: http://www.who.int/intestinal_worms/disease/en/. Accessed 15 Nov 2016.
Kvalsvig JD, Cooppan RM, Connolly KJ. The effects of parasite infections on cognitive processes in children. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1991;85:551–68.
Ngui R, Aziz S, Chua KH, Aidil RM, Lee SC, Tan TK, Sani MM, Arine AF, Rohela M, Lim YA. Patterns and risk factors of soil-transmitted helminthiasis among Orang Asli subgroups in peninsular Malaysia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2015;93:361–70.
Carroll SM, Grove DI. Resistance of dogs to reinfection with Ancylostoma ceylanicum following anthelmintic therapy. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1985;79:519–23.
Inpankaew T, Schär F, Dalsgaard A, Khieu V, Chimnoi W, Chhoun C, Sok D, Marti H, Muth S, Odermatt P, Traub RJ. High prevalence of Ancylostoma ceylanicum hookworm infections in humans, Cambodia, 2012. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014;20:976–82.
Bungiro R, Cappello M. Hookworm infection: new developments and prospects for control. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2004;17:421–6.
Loukas A, Constant SL, Bethony JM. Immunobiology of hookworm infection. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2005b;43:115–24.
Brooker S, Bethony J, Hotez PJ. Human hookworm infection in the 21st century. Adv Parasitol. 2004;58:197–288.
Hawdon JM, Hotez PJ. Hookworm: developmental biology of the infectious process. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 1996;6:618–23.
Neves DP. Human parasitology. 11th ed. Chapter 30. São Paulo: Atheneu; 2004.
Souadkia N, Brown A, Leach L, Pritchard DI. Hookworm (Necator americanus) larval enzymes disrupt human vascular endothelium. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010;83:549–58.
Brooker S, Hotez PJ, Bundy DA. Hookworm-related anaemia among pregnant women: a systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2008;2:e291.
Hotez PJ, Zhan B, Bethony JM, Loukas A, Williamson A, Goud GN, Hawdon JM, Dobardzic A, Dobardzic R, Ghosh K, Bottazzi ME, Mendez S, Zook B, Wang Y, Liu S, Essiet-Gibson I, Chung-Debose S, Xiao S, Knox D, Meagher M, Inan M, Correa-Oliveira R, Vilk P, Shepherd HR, Brandt W, Russell PK. Progress in the development of a recombinant vaccine for human hookworm disease: the Human Hookworm Vaccine Initiative. Int J Parasitol. 2003;33:1245–58.
Guedez L, Mansoor A, Birkedal-Hansen B, Lim MS, Fukushima P, Venzon D, Stetler-Stevenson WG, Stetler-Stevenson M. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1 regulation of interleukin-10 in B-cell differentiation and lymphomagenesis. Blood. 2001;97:1796–802.
Zhan B, Badamchian M, Meihua B, Ashcom J, Feng J, Hawdon J, Shuhua X, Hotez PJ. Molecular cloning and purification of Ac-TMP, a developmentally regulated putative tissue inhibitor of metalloprotease released in relative abundance by adult Ancylostoma hookworms. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002;66:238–44.
Tang YT, Gao X, Rosa BA, Abubucker S, Hallsworth-Pepin K, Martin J, Tyagi R, Heizer E, Zhang X, Bhonagiri-Palsikar V, Minx P, Warren WC, Wang Q, Zhan B, Hotez PJ, Sternberg PW, Dougall A, Gaze ST, Mulvenna J, Sotillo J, Ranganathan S, Rabelo EM, Wilson RK, Felgner PL, Bethony J, Hawdon JM, Gasser RB, Loukas A, Mitreva M. Genome of the human hookworm Necator americanus. Nat Genet. 2014;46:261–9.
Quinnell RJ, Bethony J, Pritchard DI. The immunoepidemiology of human hookworm infection. Parasite Immunol. 2004;26:443–54.
Bartsch SM, Hotez PJ, Asti L, Zapf KM, Bottazzi ME, Diemert DJ, Lee BY. The global economic and health burden of human hookworm infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016;10:e0004922.
Fort MM, Cheung J, Yen D, Li J, Zurawski SM, Lo S, Menon S, Clifford T, Hunte B, Lesley R, Muchamuel T, Hurst SD, Zurawski G, Leach MW, Gorman DM, Rennick DM. IL-25 induces IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 and Th2-associated pathologies in vivo. Immunity. 2001;15:985–95.
Quinnell RJ. Genetics of susceptibility to human helminth infection. Int J Parasitol. 2003;33:1219–31.
Urban JF, Noben-Trauth N, Schopf L, Madden KB, Finkelman FD. Cutting edge: IL-4 receptor expression by non-bone marrow-derived cells is required to expel gastrointestinal nematode parasites. J Immunol. 2001;167:6078–81.
Du L, Wei H, Li L, Shan H, Yu Y, Wang Y, Zhang G. Regulation of recombinant Trichinella spiralis 53-kDa protein (rTsP53) on alternatively activated macrophages via STAT6 but not IL-4Rα in vitro. Cell Immunol. 2014;288:1–7.
Cheever AW, Williams ME, Wynn TA, Finkelman FD, Seder RA, Cox TM, Hieny S, Caspar P, Sher A. Anti-IL-4 treatment of Schistosoma mansoni-infected mice inhibits development of T cells and non-B, non-T cells expressing Th2 cytokines while decreasing egg-induced hepatic fibrosis. J Immunol. 1994;153:753–9.
de Silva NR, Brooker S, Hotez PJ, Montresor A, Engels D, Savioli L. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: updating the global picture. Trends Parasitol. 2003;19:547–51.
Benjamin-Chung J, Nazneen A, Halder AK, Haque R, Siddique A, Uddin MS, Koporc K, Arnold BF, Hubbard AE, Unicomb L, Luby SP, Addiss DG, Colford JM. The interaction of deworming, improved sanitation, and household flooring with soil-transmitted helminth infection in rural Bangladesh. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9:e0004256.
Bath JL, Eneh PN, Bakken AJ, Knox ME, Schiedt MD, Campbell JM. The impact of perception and knowledge on the treatment and prevention of intestinal worms in the Manikganj district of Bangladesh. Yale J Biol Med. 2010;83:171–84.
Jalihal U, Avinash B, Satyaprakash BS. Hookworm infestation in south India—are we moving away from microscope? Indian J Gastroenterol. 2013;32:62–3.
George S, Levecke B, Kattula D, Velusamy V, Roy S, Geldhof P, Sarkar R, Kang G. Molecular identification of hookworm isolates in humans, dogs and soil in a tribal area in Tamil Nadu, India. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016;10:e0004891.
Mukhopadhyay C, Wilson G, Chawla K, Vs B, Shivananda PG. A 6 year geohelminth infection profile of children at high altitude in Western Nepal. BMC Public Health. 2008;8:98.
Khanal P, Walgate R. Nepal deworming programme ready to go worldwide. Bull World Health Organ. 2002;80:423–4.
Gabrielli AF, Ramsan M, Naumann C, Tsogzolmaa D, Bojang B, Khoshal MH, Connolly M, Stothard JR, Montresor A, Savioli L. Soil-transmitted helminths and haemoglobin status among Afghan children in World Food Programme assisted schools. J Helminthol. 2005;79(4):381.
Ensink JH, van der Hoek W, Mukhtar M, Tahir Z, Amerasinghe FP. High risk of hookworm infection among wastewater farmers in Pakistan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2005;99:809–18.
Gunawardena K, Kumarendran B, Ebenezer R, Gunasingha MS, Pathmeswaran A, de Silva N. Soil-transmitted helminth infections among plantation sector schoolchildren in Sri Lanka: prevalence after ten years of preventive chemotherapy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5:e1341.
Fernando SD, Paranavitane SR, Rajakaruna J, Weerasinghe S, Silva D, Wickremasinghe AR. The health and nutritional status of school children in two rural communities in Sri Lanka. Tropical Med Int Health. 2000;5:450–2.
Gunawardena GS, Karunaweera ND, Ismail MM. Effects of climatic, socio-economic and behavioural factors on the transmission of hookworm (Necator americanus) on two low-country plantations in Sri Lanka. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2005;99:601–9.
McSorley HJ, Loukas A. The immunology of human hookworm infections. Parasite Immunol. 2010;32:549–59.
Chan MS. The global burden of intestinal nematode infections—fifty years on. Parasitol Today. 1997;13:438–43.
Mabaso ML, Appleton CC, Hughes JC, Gouws E. The effect of soil type and climate on hookworm (Necator americanus) distribution in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Tropical Med Int Health. 2003;8:722–7.
Anderson RM, May RM. Helminth infections of humans: mathematical models, population dynamics, and control. Adv Parasitol. 1985;24:1–101.
Bethony J, Chen J, Lin S, Xiao S, Zhan B, Li S, Xue H, Xing F, Humphries D, Yan W, Chen G, Foster V, Hawdon JM, Hotez PJ. Emerging patterns of hookworm infection: influence of aging on the intensity of Necator infection in Hainan Province, People’s Republic of China. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:1336–44.
Forrester JE, Scott ME, Bundy DA, Golden MH. Clustering of Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura infections within households. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1988;82:282–8.
Faulkner H, Turner J, Behnke J, Kamgno J, Rowlinson MC, Bradley JE, Boussinesq M. Associations between filarial and gastrointestinal nematodes. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2005;99:301–12.
Stoll NR. On endemic hookworm, where do we stand today? Exp Parasitol. 1962;12:241–52.
Hotez PJ, Brooker S, Bethony JM, Bottazzi ME, Loukas A, Xiao S. Hookworm infection. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:799–807.
Bethony J, Brooker S, Albonico M, Geiger SM, Loukas A, Diemert D, Hotez PJ. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm. Lancet. 2006;367:1521–32.
Hotez PJ, Bethony J, Bottazzi ME, Brooker S, Buss P. Hookworm: “the great infection of mankind”. PLoS Med. 2005;2:e67.
Irisarri-Gutiérrez MJ, Muñoz-Antolí C, Acosta L, Parker LA, Toledo R, Bornay-Llinares FJ, Esteban JG. Hookworm-like eggs in children’s faecal samples from a rural area of Rwanda. Afr Health Sci. 2016;16:83–8.
Knopp S, Mgeni AF, Khamis IS, Steinmann P, Stothard JR, Rollinson D, Marti H, Utzinger J. Diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminths in the era of preventive chemotherapy: effect of multiple stool sampling and use of different diagnostic techniques. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2008;2:e331.
Coulibaly JT, Ouattara M, Becker SL, Lo NC, Keiser J, N’Goran EK, Ianniello D, Rinaldi L, Cringoli G, Utzinger J. Comparison of sensitivity and faecal egg counts of Mini-FLOTAC using fixed stool samples and Kato-Katz technique for the diagnosis of Schistosoma mansoni and soil-transmitted helminths. Acta Trop. 2016;164:107–16.
Knopp S, Salim N, Schindler T, Karagiannis Voules DA, Rothen J, Lweno O, Mohammed AS, Singo R, Benninghoff M, Nsojo AA, Genton B, Daubenberger C. Diagnostic accuracy of Kato-Katz, FLOTAC, Baermann, and PCR methods for the detection of light-intensity hookworm and Strongyloides stercoralis infections in Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2014;90:535–45.
Utzinger J, Rinaldi L, Lohourignon LK, Rohner F, Zimmermann MB, Tschannen AB, N'goran EK, Cringoli G. FLOTAC: a new sensitive technique for the diagnosis of hookworm infections in humans. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2008;102:84–90.
Keiser J, Utzinger J. Efficacy of current drugs against soil-transmitted helminth infections: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008;299:1937–48.
Utzinger J, Keiser J. Schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis: common drugs for treatment and control. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2004;5:263–85.
Rey L. One century of experience with the control of ancylostomiasis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2001;34:61–7.
Bennett A, Guyatt H. Reducing intestinal nematode infection: efficacy of albendazole and mebendazole. Parasitol Today. 2000;16:71–4.
Smith JL, Brooker S. Impact of hookworm infection and deworming on anaemia in non-pregnant populations: a systematic review. Tropical Med Int Health. 2010;15:776–95.
Collaborators, G B o D S. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet. 2015;386:743–800.
Albonico M, Bickle Q, Ramsan M, Montresor A, Savioli L, Taylor M. Efficacy of mebendazole and levamisole alone or in combination against intestinal nematode infections after repeated targeted mebendazole treatment in Zanzibar. Bull World Health Organ. 2003;81:343–52.
Albonico M, Smith PG, Ercole E, Hall A, Chwaya HM, Alawi KS, Savioli L. Rate of reinfection with intestinal nematodes after treatment of children with mebendazole or albendazole in a highly endemic area. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1995;89:538–41.
Truscott JE, Turner HC, Anderson RM. What impact will the achievement of the current World Health Organisation targets for anthelmintic treatment coverage in children have on the intensity of soil transmitted helminth infections? Parasit Vectors. 2015;8:551.
Bethony JM, Simon G, Diemert DJ, Parenti D, Desrosiers A, Schuck S, Fujiwara R, Santiago H, Hotez PJ. Randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial of the Na-ASP-2 hookworm vaccine in unexposed adults. Vaccine. 2008;26:2408–17.
Diemert DJ, Bethony JM, Hotez PJ. Hookworm vaccines. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46:282–8.
Loukas A, Bethony JM, Mendez S, Fujiwara RT, Goud GN, Ranjit N, Zhan B, Jones K, Bottazzi ME, Hotez PJ. Vaccination with recombinant aspartic hemoglobinase reduces parasite load and blood loss after hookworm infection in dogs. PLoS Med. 2005a;2:e295.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Velikkakam, T., Fiuza, J.A., Gaze, S.T. (2017). Overview of Hookworm Infection in Humans. In: Singh, S. (eds) Neglected Tropical Diseases - South Asia. Neglected Tropical Diseases. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68493-2_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68493-2_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-68492-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-68493-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)