Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Hacking Stigma by Loving Yourself: a Mediated-Moderation Model of Self-Compassion and Stigma

  • REVIEW
  • Published:
Mindfulness Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Stigma is an important topic in public health and has significant impact on psychological and physical well-being of stigmatized individuals. Emerging evidence has suggested that self-compassion, a self-caring and compassionate attitude in the face of hardship, may buffer the negative effects of stigma. However, little research has been conducted to investigate the underlying mechanisms through which self-compassion may buffer the effects of public stigma on self-stigma and the associated negative outcomes. The goal of this paper is to present a theoretical framework that integrates the existing body of literature in self-compassion and stigma. This framework postulates that (1) self-compassion may be related to adaptive cognitive, emotional, and social processes, and (2) these processes may, in turn, prevent individuals with stigmatized identity from developing self-stigma and other health outcomes. Theoretical and empirical support for this mediated-moderation model is reviewed. Future directions to empirically evaluate this model, as well the potential applications of this model for stigma reduction interventions are presented.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abiri, S., Oakley, L. D., Hitchcock, M. E., & Hall, A. (2016). Stigma related avoidance in people living with severe mental illness (SMI): Findings of an integrative review. Community Mental Health Journal, 52(3), 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-015-9957-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96(2), 358–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akin, A. (2008). The scales of psychological well-being: A study of validity and reliability. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 8(3), 741–750.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akin, A. (2010). Self-compassion and loneliness. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 2(3), 702–718.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akin, U., & Akin, A. (2015). Examining the predictive role of self-compassion on sense of community in Turkish adolescents. Social Indicators Research, 123(1), 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0724-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ali, A., Hassiotis, A., Strydom, A., & King, M. (2012). Self stigma in people with intellectual disabilities and courtesy stigma in family carers: A systematic review. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 33(6), 2122–2140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2012.06.013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, A. B., Goldwasser, E. R., & Leary, M. R. (2012). Self-compassion and well-being among older adults. Self and Identity, 11(4), 428–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.595082.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, A. B., & Leary, M. R. (2010). Self-compassion, stress, and coping. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(2), 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00246.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Arch, J. J., Brown, K. W., Dean, D. J., Landy, L. N., Brown, K. D., & Laudenslager, M. L. (2014). Self-compassion training modulates alpha-amylase, heart rate variability, and subjective responses to social evaluative threat in women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 42, 49–58.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Arch, J. J., Landy, L. N., & Brown, K. W. (2016). Predictors and moderators of biopsychological social stress responses following brief self-compassion meditation training. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 69, 35–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.03.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arndt, J., Schimel, J., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (2002). The intrinsic self and defensiveness: Evidence that activating the intrinsic self reduces self-handicapping and conformity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(5), 671–683.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldofski, S., Rudolph, A., Tigges, W., Herbig, B., Jurowich, C., Kaiser, S., . . . Hilbert, A. (2016). Weight bias internalization, emotion dysregulation, and non-normative eating behaviors in prebariatric patients. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 49(2), 180–185.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, L. K., & Curry, J. F. (2011). Self-compassion: Conceptualizations, correlates, & interventions. Review of General Psychology, 15(4), 289–303 http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.uh.edu/10.1037/a0025754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berecz, J. M. (2001). All that glitters is not gold: Bad forgiveness is counseling and preaching. Pastoral Psychology, 49(4), 253–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berghuis, J. P., & Stanton, A. L. (2002). Adjustment to a dyadic stressor: A longitudinal study of coping and depressive symptoms in infertile couples over an insemination attempt. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(2), 433–438. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006X.70.2.433.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berjot, S., & Gillet, N. (2011). Discrimination and stigmatization. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 33.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W., Worthington Jr., E. L., Parrott III, L., O’Connor, L., & Wade, N. G. (2001). Dispositional forgivingness: Development and construct validity of the Transgression Narrative Test of Forgivingness (TNTF). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(10), 1277–1290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., . . . Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, J. E., Adler, E. P., Otilingam, P. G., & Peters, T. (2014). Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness (ISMI) scale: A multinational review. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55(1), 221–231.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breines, J. G., & Chen, S. (2012). Self-compassion increases self-improvement motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(9), 1133–1143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212445599.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brenner, R. E., Heath, P. J., Vogel, D. L., & Credé, M. (2017). Two is more valid than one: Examining the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(6), 696–707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brion, J. M., Leary, M. R., & Drabkin, A. S. (2014). Self-compassion and reactions to serious illness: The case of HIV. Journal of Health Psychology, 19(2), 218–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105312467391.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brodar, K. E., Crosskey, B. L., & Thompson Jr., R. J. (2015). The relationship of self-compassion with perfectionistic self-presentation, perceived forgiveness, and perceived social support in an undergraduate Christian community. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 43(4), 232–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burrow, A. L., & Hill, P. L. (2012). Flying the unfriendly skies?: The role of forgiveness and race in the experience of racial microaggressions. Journal of Social Psychology, 152(5), 639–653.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cadell, S., Hemsworth, D., Smit Quosai, T., Steele, R., Davies, E., Liben, S., . . . Siden, H. (2014). Posttraumatic growth in parents caring for a child with a life-limiting illness: A structural equation model. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(2), 123–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Camp, D. L., Finlay, W. M. L., & Lyons, E. (2002). Is low self-esteem an inevitable consequence of stigma? An example from women with chronic mental health problems. Social Science & Medicine, 55(5), 823–834. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00205-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carrasco, L. F., Martin, N., & Molero, F. (2013). Stigma consciousness and quality of life in persons with physical and sensory disability. Revista de Psicologia Social, 28(3), 259–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, S. K., Dunn, J., Occhipinti, S., Hughes, S., Baade, P., Sinclair, S., & O’Connell, D. L. (2012). A systematic review of the impact of stigma and nihilism on lung cancer outcomes. BMC Cancer, 12(1), 184. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-12-184.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cho, D., Park, C. L., & Blank, T. O. (2013). Emotional approach coping: Gender differences on psychological adjustment in young to middle-aged cancer survivors. Psychology & Health, 28(8), 874–894. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2012.762979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chung, M. S. (2016). Relation between lack of forgiveness and depression: The moderating effect of self-compassion. Psychological Reports, 119(3), 573–585.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2005). Child maltreatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 409–438. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144029.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, J. E., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Meyer, I. H., & Busch, J. T. (2014). Intervening within and across levels: A multilevel approach to stigma and public health. Social Science & Medicine, 103, 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.09.023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corrigan, P. W., Kerr, A., & Knudsen, L. (2005). The stigma of mental illness: Explanatory models and methods for change. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 11(3), 179–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appsy.2005.07.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corrigan, P. W., Kosyluk, K. A., & Rüsch, N. (2013). Reducing self-stigma by coming out proud. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 794–800. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.301037.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Corrigan, P. W., & Watson, A. C. (2002). The paradox of self-stigma and mental illness. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9(1), 35–53. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.9.1.35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, J., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2013). Experiential avoidance and self-compassion in chronic pain. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(8), 1578–1591. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, J., Marôco, J., Pinto‐Gouveia, J., Ferreira, C., & Castilho, P. (2016). Validation of the psychometric properties of the Self‐Compassion Scale. Testing the factorial validity and factorial invariance of the measure among borderline personality disorder, anxiety disorder, eating disorder and general populations. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 23(5), 460–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Creswell, J. D., Welch, W. T., Taylor, S. E., Sherman, D. K., Gruenewald, T. L., & Mann, T. (2005). Affirmation of personal values buffers neuroendocrine and psychological stress responses. Psychological Science, 16(11), 846–851.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608–630. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.608.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., Major, B., & Steele, C. (1998). Social stigma. In S. Fiske, D. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., pp. 504–553). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Pleum Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Denton, F. N., Rostosky, S. S., & Danner, F. (2014). Stigma-related stressors, coping self-efficacy, and physical health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(3), 383–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diedrich, A., Grant, M., Hofmann, S. G., Hiller, W., & Berking, M. (2014). Self-compassion as an emotion regulation strategy in major depressive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 58, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.05.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doyle, D. M., & Molix, L. (2015). Social stigma and sexual minorities’ romantic relationship functioning: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(10), 1363–1381.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Earnshaw, V. A., & Quinn, D. M. (2012). The impact of stigma in healthcare on people living with chronic illnesses. Journal of Health Psychology, 17(2), 157–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105311414952.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Earnshaw, V. A., Lang, S. M., Lippitt, M., Jin, H., & Chaudoir, S. R. (2015). HIV stigma and physical health symptoms: Do social support, adaptive coping, and/or identity centrality act as resilience resources? AIDS and Behavior, 19(1), 41–49.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Erguner-Tekinalp, B. (2009). Daily experiences of racism and forgiving historical offenses: An African American experience. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(9), 1784–1792.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falconer, C. J., King, J. A., & Brewin, C. R. (2015). Demonstrating mood repair with a situation‐based measure of self‐compassion and self‐criticism. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 88(4), 351–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fehr, R., Gelfand, M. J., & Nag, M. (2010). The road to forgiveness: A meta-analytic synthesis of its situational and dispositional correlates. Psychological Bulletin, 136(5), 894–914.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feinstein, B. A., Goldfried, M. R., & Davila, J. (2012). The relationship between experiences of discrimination and mental health among lesbians and gay men: An examination of internalized homonegativity and rejection sensitivity as potential mechanisms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(5), 917–927. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029425.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fife, B. L., & Wright, E. R. (2000). The dimensionality of stigma: A comparison of its impact on the self of persons with HIV/AIDS and cancer. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41(1), 50–67 Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2676360.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finlay-Jones, A. L., Rees, C. S., & Kane, R. T. (2015). Self-compassion, emotion regulation and stress among Australian psychologists: Testing an emotion regulation model of self-compassion using structural equation modeling. PLoS One, 10(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133481.

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226 http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.uh.edu/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fung, K. M., Tsang, H. W., & Cheung, W. M. (2011). Randomized controlled trial of the self-stigma reduction program among individuals with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 189(2), 208–214.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galla, B. M. (2016). Within-person changes in mindfulness and self-compassion predict enhanced emotional well-being in healthy, but stressed adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 49, 204–217 http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.uh.edu/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.03.016.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galvan, F. H., Davis, E. M., Banks, D., & Bing, E. G. (2008). HIV stigma and social support among African Americans. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 22(5), 423–436.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, W. L., Pickett, C. L., & Brewer, M. B. (2000). Social exclusion and selective memory: How the need to belong affects memory for social information. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(4), 486–496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghorbani, N., Watson, P. J., Chen, Z., & Norballa, F. (2012). Self-compassion in Iranian Muslims: Relationships with integrative self-knowledge, mental health, and religious orientation. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 22(2), 106–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2011.638601.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P. (2009). The Compassionate Mind: A new Approach to the Challenge of Life. London: Constable & Robinson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P., & Irons, C. (2005). Therapies for shame and self-attacking, using cognitive, behavioural, emotional imagery and compassionate mind training. In Compassion: conceptualisations, research and use in psychotherapy. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P., & Procter, S. (2006). Compassionate mind training for people with high shame and self-criticism: Overview and pilot study of a group therapy approach. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 13(6), 353–379. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Matos, M., & Rivis, A. (2011). Fears of compassion: Development of three self‐report measures. Psychology and psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 84(3), 239–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greco, L. A., Lambert, W., & Baer, R. A. (2008). Psychological inflexibility in childhood and adolescence: Development and evaluation of the Avoidance and Fusion Questionnaire for Youth. Psychological Assessment, 20(2), 93–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green, S. E. (2003). “What do you mean ‘what's wrong with her?’”: Stigma and the lives of families of children with disabilities. Social Science & Medicine, 57(8), 1361–1374 http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.uh.edu/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00511-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J. (2001). Emotion regulation in adulthood: Timing is everything. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(6), 214–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, C. W., Row, K. A., Wuensch, K. L., & Godley, K. R. (2013). The role of self-compassion in physical and psychological well-being. The Journal of Psychology, 147(4), 311–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2012.693138.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma “get under the skin”? A psychological mediation framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135(5), 707–730. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016441.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Dovidio, J. F., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Phills, C. E. (2009a). An implicit measure of anti-gay attitudes: Prospective associations with emotion regulation strategies and psychological distress. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(6), 1316–1320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.08.005.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Dovidio, J. (2009b). How does stigma “get under the skin”? The mediating role of emotion regulation. Psychological Science, 20(10), 1282–1289. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02441.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Roche, B. (2001). Relational frame theory: A past-Skinnerian account of human language and cognition. New York: Kluwer Academic/ Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. W., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and commitment therapy: Model, processes and outcomes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(1), 1–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., & Smith, S. (2005). Get out of your mind and into your life: The new acceptance and commitment therapy. Oaklands: New Harbinger Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy: An experiential approach to behavior change. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2011). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heath, P. J., Brenner, R. E., Lannin, D. G., & Vogel, D. L. (2016). Self-compassion moderates the relationship of perceived public and anticipated self-stigma of seeking help. Stigma and Health. https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000072.

  • Heath, P. J., Brenner, R. E., Vogel, D. L., Lannin, D. G., & Strass, H. A. (2017). Masculinity and barriers to seeking counseling: The buffering role of self-compassion. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(1), 94–103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heffernan, M., Griffin, M. T. Q., McNulty, S. R., & Fitzpatrick, J. J. . (2010). Self-compassion and emotional intelligence in nurses. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 16(4), 366–373. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-172X.2010.01853.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heijnders, M., & Van Der Meij, S. (2006). The fight against stigma: An overview of stigma-reduction strategies and interventions. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 11(3), 353–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548500600595327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helgeson, V. S., Reynolds, K. A., & Tomich, P. L. (2006). A meta-analytic review of benefit finding and growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(5), 797–816.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, E. T., King, G. A., & Mavin, G. M. (1982). Individual construct accessibility and subjective impressions and recall. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(1), 35–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hilbert, A., Braehler, E., Schmidt, R., Lowe, B., Hauser, W., & Zenger, M. (2015). Self-compassion as a resource in the self-stigma process of overweight and obese individuals. Obesity Facts, 8(5), 293–301. https://doi.org/10.1159/000438681.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E., & London, P. (1986). The relationship of self-concept and social support to emotional distress among women during war. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4(2), 189–203. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1986.4.2.189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgson, L. K., & Wertheim, E. H. (2007). Does good emotion management aid forgiving? Multiple dimensions of empathy, emotion management, and forgiveness of self and others. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24(6), 931–949.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann, S. G., Petrocchi, N., Steinberg, J., Lin, M., Arimitsu, K., Kind, S., et al. (2015). Loving-kindness meditation to target affect in mood disorders: A proof-of-concept study. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/269126.

  • Huang, S. T. T., & Enright, R. D. (2000). Forgiveness and anger-related emotions in Taiwan: Implications for therapy. Psychotherapy, 37(1), 71–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huebner, D. M., Nemeroff, C. J., & Davis, M. C. (2005). Do hostility and neuroticism confound associations between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(5), 723–740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hulbert-Williams, N. J., Storey, L., & Wilson, K. G. (2015). Psychological interventions for patients with cancer: Psychological flexibility and the potential utility of acceptance and commitment therapy. European Journal of Cancer Care, 24(1), 15–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iskender, M. (2009). The relationship between self-compassion, self-efficacy, and control belief about learning in Turkish university students. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 37(5), 711–720. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2009.37.5.711.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeon, H., Lee, K., & Kwon, S. (2016). Investigation of the structural relationships between social support, self-compassion, and subjective well-being in Korean elite student athletes. Psychological Reports, 119(1), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294116658226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, E. E. (1984). Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships. New York: WH Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kachadourian, L. K., Fincham, F., & Davila, J. (2005). Attitudinal ambivalence, rumination, and forgiveness of partner transgressions in marriage. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(3), 334–342.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kato, A., Takada, M., & Hashimoto, H. (2014). Reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the Self-Stigma Scale in patients with type 2 diabetes. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 12(1), 179. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-014-0179-z.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, A. C., & Tasca, G. A. (2016). Within-persons predictors of change during eating disorders treatment: An examination of self-compassion, self-criticism, shame, and eating disorder symptoms. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 49(7), 716–722.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, M. A., & Yi, J. (2014). Life after cancer: How does public stigma increase psychological distress of childhood cancer survivors? International Journal of Nursing Studies, 51(12), 1605–1614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2014.04.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koschade, J. E., & Lynd-Stevenson, R. M. (2011). The stigma of having a parent with mental illness: Genetic attributions and associative stigma. Australian Journal of Psychology, 63(2), 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-9536.2011.00009.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krieger, T., Altenstein, D., Baettig, I., Doerig, N., & Holtforth, M. G. (2013). Self-compassion in depression: Associations with depressive symptoms, rumination, and avoidance in depressed outpatients. Behavior Therapy, 44(3), 501–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2013.04.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kross, E., & Ayduk, O. (2008). Facilitating adaptive emotional analysis: Distinguishing distanced-analysis of depressive experiences from immersed-analysis and distraction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(7), 924–938.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kross, E., & Ayduk, O. (2011). Making meaning out of negative experiences by self-distancing. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(3), 187–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kross, E., Ayduk, O., & Mischel, W. (2005). When asking “why” does not hurt: Distinguishing rumination from reflective processing of negative emotions. Psychological Science, 16(9), 709–715.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krupchanka, D., Kruk, N., Murray, J., Davey, S., Bezborodovs, N., Winkler, P., & Sartorius, N. (2016). Experience of stigma in private life of relatives of people diagnosed with schizophrenia in the Republic of Belarus. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51(5), 757–765. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1190-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lannin, D. G., Guyll, M., Vogel, D. L., & Madon, S. (2013). Reducing the stigma associated with seeking psychotherapy through self-affirmation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(4), 508–519.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larner, B., & Blow, A. (2011). A model of meaning-making coping and growth in combat veterns. Review of General Psychology, 15(3), 187–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Allen, A. B., & Hancock, J. (2007). Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(5), 887–904. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lepore, S. J. (2001). A social-cognitive processing model of emotional adjustment to cancer. In A. Baum & B. L. Andersen (Eds.), Psychosocial interventions for cancer (pp. 99–116). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Li, Z., Hsieh, E., Morano, J. P., & Sheng, Y. (2016). Exploring HIV-related stigma among HIV-infected men who have sex with men in Beijing, China: A correlation study. AIDS Care. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2016.1179713.

  • Liao, K. Y. H., Kashubeck-West, S., Weng, C. Y., & Deitz, C. (2015). Testing a mediation framework for the link between perceived discrimination and psychological distress among sexual minority individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 226–241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lillis, J., Hayes, S. C., Bunting, K., & Masuda, A. (2009). Teaching acceptance and mindfulness to improve the lives of the obese: A preliminary test of a theoretical model. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37(1), 58–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsay, E. K., & Creswell, J. D. (2014). Helping the self help others: Self-affirmation increases self-compassion and pro-social behaviors. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 421.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Link, B. G. (1982). Mental patient status, work, and income: An examination of the effects of a psychiatric label. American Sociological Review, 47, 202–215 Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2094963.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Link, B. G. (1987). Understanding labeling effects in the area of mental disorders: An assessment of the effects of expectations of rejection. American Sociological Review, 52(1), 96–112 Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2095395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Link, B. G., Cullen, F. T., Struening, E. L., Shrout, P. E., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1989). A modified labeling theory approach to mental disorders: An empirical assessment. American Sociological Review, 54(3), 400–423 Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2095613.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Livingston, J. D., & Boyd, J. E. (2010). Correlates and consequences of internalized stigma for people living with mental illness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 71(12), 2150–2161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.09.030.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Logie, C., & Gadalla, T. M. (2009). Meta-analysis of health and demographic correlates of stigma towards people living with HIV. AIDS Care, 21(6), 742–753. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120802511877.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • López, A., Sanderman, R., Smink, A., Zhang, Y., van Sonderen, E., Ranchor, A., et al. (2015). A reconsideration of the Self-Compassion Scale’s total score: self-compassion versus self-criticism. PloS one, 10(7), e0132940. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132940.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Longe, O., Maratos, F. A., Gilbert, P., Evans, G., Volker, F., Rockliff, H., & Rippon, G. (2010). Having a word with yourself: Neural correlates of self-criticism and self-reassurance. NeuroImage, 49(2), 1849–1856.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luoma, J. B., Kohlenberg, B. S., Hayes, S. C., Bunting, K., & Rye, A. K. (2008). Reducing self-stigma in substance abuse through acceptance and commitment therapy: Model, manual development, and pilot outcomes. Addiction Research and Theory, 16(2), 149–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066350701850295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luoma, J. B., & Platt, M. G. (2015). Shame, self-criticism, self-stigma, and compassion in acceptance and commitment therapy. Current Opinion in Psychology, 2, 97–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2014.12.016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luszczynska, A., Sarkar, Y., & Knoll, N. (2007). Received social support, self-efficacy, and finding benefits in disease as predictors of physical functioning and adherence to antiretroviral therapy. Patient Education and Counseling, 66(1), 37–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., Tucker, K. L., Caldwell, N. D., & Berg, K. (1999). Why ruminators are poor problem solvers: Clues from the phenomenology of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(5), 1041–1060.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacBeth, A., & Gumley, A. (2012). Exploring compassion: A meta-analysis of the association between self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(6), 545–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maheux, A., & Price, M. (2016). The indirect effect of social support on post-trauma psychopathology via self-compassion. Personality and Individual Differences, 88, 102–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Major, B., Kaiser, C. R., & McCoy, S. K. (2003b). It's not my fault: When and why attributions to prejudice protect self-esteem. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(6), 772–781.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Major, B., & O'Brien, L. T. (2005). The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 393–421. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070137.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Major, B., Quinton, W. J., & McCoy, S. K. (2002). Antecedents and consequences of attributions to discrimination: Theoretical and empirical advances. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 251–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(02)80007-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Major, B., Quinton, W. J., & Schmader, T. (2003a). Attributions to discrimination and self-esteem: Impact of group identification and situational ambiguity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(3), 220–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00547-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mak, W. W., & Kwok, Y. T. (2010). Internalization of stigma for parents of children with autism spectrum disorder in Hong Kong. Social Science & Medicine, 70(12), 2045–2051 http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.uh.edu/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.02.023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mak, W. W., Poon, C. Y., Pun, L. Y., & Cheung, S. F. (2007). Meta-analysis of stigma and mental health. Social Science & Medicine, 65(2), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.03.015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malli, M. A., Forrester-Jones, R., & Murphy, G. (2016). Stigma in youth with Tourette’s syndrome: A systematic review and synthesis. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 25(2), 127–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-015-0761-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markowitz, F. E. (1998). The effects of stigma on the psychological well-being and life satisfaction of persons with mental illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 39(4), 335–347 Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2676342.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, M. M., Staggers, S. M., & Anderson, C. M. (2011). The relationships between cognitive flexibility with dogmatism, intellectual flexibility, preference for consistency, and self-compassion. Communication Research Reports, 28(3), 275–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2011.587555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mays, V. M., Cochran, S. D., & Barnes, N. W. (2007). Race, race-based discrimination, and health outcomes among African Americans. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 201–225.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mazor, Y., Gelkopf, M., Mueser, K. T., & Roe, D. (2016). Posttraumatic growth in psychosis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 7, 202. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00202.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McCay, E. A., & Seeman, M. V. (1998). A scale to measure the impact of a schizophrenic illness on an individual's self-concept. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 12(1), 41–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, M. E., Worthington Jr., E. L., & Rachal, K. C. (1997). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(2), 321–336.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, C. T., & Kaiser, C. R. (2001). A theoretical perspective on coping with stigma. Journal of Social Issues, 57(1), 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mittal, D., Sullivan, G., Chekuri, L., Allee, E., & Corrigan, P. W. (2012). Empirical studies of self-stigma reduction strategies: A critical review of the literature. Psychiatric Services, 63, 974–981. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201100459.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz, M., Sanz, M., Pérez-Santos, E., & de los Ángeles Quiroga, M. (2011). Proposal of a socio–cognitive–behavioral structural equation model of internalized stigma in people with severe and persistent mental illness. Psychiatry Research, 186(2), 402–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.06.019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., & Petrocchi, N. (2017). Protection or vulnerability? A meta‐analysis of the relations between the positive and negative components of self‐compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 24(2), 373–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neely, M. E., Schallert, D. L., Mohammed, S. S., Roberts, R. M., & Chen, Y. J. (2009). Self-kindness when facing stress: The role of self-compassion, goal regulation, and support in college students’ well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 33(1), 88–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-008-9119-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K. D. (2003a). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K. D. (2003b). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K. D., & Vonk, R. (2009). Self-compassion versus global self-esteem: Two different ways of relating to oneself. Journal of Personality, 77(1), 23–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00537.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K. D., & Faso, D. J. (2015). Self-compassion and well-being in parents of children with autism. Mindfulness, 6(4), 938–947. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0359-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K. D., Hsieh, Y. P., & Dejitterat, K. (2005). Self-compassion, achievement goals, and coping with academic failure. Self and Identity, 4(3), 263–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/13576500444000317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K. D., & Pommier, E. (2013). The relationship between self-compassion and other-focused concern among college undergraduates, community adults, and practicing meditators. Self and Identity, 12(2), 160–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K. D., Rude, S. S., & Kirkpatrick, K. L. (2007). An examination of self-compassion in relation to positive psychological functioning and personality traits. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(4), 908–916.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K., & Tirch, D. (2013). Self-compassion and ACT. In T. B. Kashdan & J. Ciarrochi (Eds.), Mindfulness, acceptance, and positive psychology: The seven foundations of well-being (pp. 78–106).

    Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. E., & Mustanski, B. (2010). Internalized homophobia and internalizing mental health problems: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(8), 1019–1029.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(4), 569–582.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400–424.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, K., Kemper, K. J., & Mahan, J. D. (2015). What factors promote resilience and protect against burnout in first-year pediatric and medicine-pediatric residents? Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156587214568894.

  • Pachankis, J. E. (2007). The psychological implications of concealing a stigma: A cognitive-affective-behavioral model. Psychological Bulletin, 133(2), 328–345. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.328.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pachankis, J. E., Goldfried, M. R., & Ramrattan, M. E. (2008). Extension of the rejection sensitivity construct to the interpersonal functioning of gay men. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 306–317.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pachankis, J. E., Rendina, H. J., Restar, A., Ventuneac, A., Grov, C., & Parsons, J. T. (2015). A minority stress—Emotion regulation model of sexual compulsivity among highly sexually active gay and bisexual men. Health Psychology, 34(8), 829–840.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopoulos, S., & Brennan, L. (2015). Correlates of weight stigma in adults with overweight and obesity: A systematic literature review. Obesity, 23(9), 1743–1760.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. L. (1998). Implications of posttraumatic growth for individuals. In R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park, & L. G. Calhoun (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth: Positive change in the aftermath of crisis (pp. 153–177). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc..

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. L. (2010). Making sense of the meaning literature: An integrative review of meaning making and its effects on adjustment to stressful life events. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 257–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pasupathi, M. (2001). The social construction of the personal past and its implications for adult development. Psychological Bulletin, 127(5), 651–672.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-Garín, D., Molero, F., & Bos, A. E. (2015). Perceived discrimination, internalized stigma and psychological well-being of people with mental illness. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 18, E75. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2015.74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petrocchi, N., Ottaviani, C., & Couyoumdjian, A. (2014). Dimensionality of self-compassion: Translation and construct validation of the self-compassion scale in an Italian sample. Journal of Mental Health, 23(2), 72–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phelan, S. M., Burgess, D. J., Puhl, R., Dyrbye, L. N., Dovidio, J. F., Yeazel, M., et al. (2015). The adverse effect of weight stigma on the well-being of medical students with overweight or obesity: Findings from a national survey. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 30(9), 1251–1258.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, W. J., & Ferguson, S. J. (2012). Self-compassion: A resource for positive aging. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 68(4), 529–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, W. J., & Ferguson, S. J. (2013). Self-compassion: A resource for positive aging. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 68(4), 529–539. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbs091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, D. M., & Chaudoir, S. R. (2009). Living with a concealable stigmatized identity: The impact of anticipated stigma, centrality, salience, and cultural stigma on psychological distress and health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(4), 634–651.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, D. M., & Crocker, J. (1999). When ideology hurts: Effects of belief in the protestant ethic and feeling overweight on the psychological well-being of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(2), 402–414.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, D. M., Williams, M. K., & Weisz, B. M. (2015). From discrimination to internalized mental illness stigma: The mediating roles of anticipated discrimination and anticipated stigma. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 38(2), 103–108.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(6), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raque-Bogdan, T. L., Ericson, S. K., Jackson, J., Martin, H. M., & Bryan, N. A. (2011). Attachment and mental and physical health: Self-compassion and mattering as mediators. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(2), 272. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023041.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reilly, E. D., Rochlen, A. B., & Awad, G. H. (2013). Men’s self-compassion and self-esteem: The moderating roles of shame and masculine norm adherence. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 15(1), 22–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riek, B. M., & Mania, E. W. (2012). The antecedents and consequences of interpersonal forgiveness: A meta-analytic review. Personal Relationships, 19(2), 304–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ritsher, J. B., & Phelan, J. C. (2004). Internalized stigma predicts erosion of morale among psychiatric outpatients. Psychiatry Research, 129(3), 257–265.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, C. J., Keng, S. L., Ekblad, A. G., & Brantley, J. G. (2012). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on emotional experience and expression: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68(1), 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20857.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roe, D., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Derhi, O., Yanos, P. T., & Lysaker, P. H. (2010). Talking about life and finding solutions to different hardships: A qualitative study on the impact of narrative enhancement and cognitive therapy on persons with serious mental illness. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198(11), 807–812.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rüsch, N., Corrigan, P. W., Heekeren, K., Theodoridou, A., Dvorsky, D., Metzler, S., & Rössler, W. (2014a). Well-being among persons at risk of psychosis: The role of self-labeling, shame, and stigma stress. Psychiatric Services, 65(4), 483–489.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rüsch, N., Corrigan, P. W., Powell, K., Rajah, A., Olschewski, M., Wilkniss, S., & Batia, K. (2009b). A stress-coping model of mental illness stigma: II. Emotional stress responses, coping behavior and outcome. Schizophrenia Research, 110(1), 65–71.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rüsch, N., Corrigan, P. W., Wassel, A., Michaels, P., Olschewski, M., Wilkniss, S., & Batia, K. (2009a). A stress-coping model of mental illness stigma: I. Predictors of cognitive stress appraisal. Schizophrenia Research, 110(1), 59–64.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rüsch, N., Müller, M., Lay, B., Corrigan, P. W., Zahn, R., Schönenberger, T., . . . Rössler, W. (2014b). Emotional reactions to involuntary psychiatric hospitalization and stigma-related stress among people with mental illness. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 264(1), 35–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russinova, Z., Rogers, E. S., Gagne, C., Bloch, P., Drake, K. M., & Mueser, K. T. (2014). A randomized controlled trial of a peer-run antistigma photovoice intervention. Psychiatric Services, 65(2), 242–246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2008). From ego depletion to vitality: Theory and findings concerning the facilitation of energy available to the self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(2), 702–717.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saeinia, M., Barjoee, L. K., & Bozorgi, Z. D. (2016). The effect of self-compassion training on the emotion regulation of married women who referred to counseling center. International Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies (IJHCS) ISSN 2356–5926, 2(1), 726–735.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schimel, J., Arndt, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (2001). Being accepted for who we are: evidence that social validation of the intrinsic self reduces general defensiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(1), 35–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schimel, J., Arndt, J., Banko, K. M., & Cook, A. (2004). Not all self-affirmations were created equal: The cognitive and social benefits of affirming the intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) self. Social Cognition, 22(1), 75–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmader, T., Croft, A., Whitehead, J., & Stone, J. (2013). A peek inside the targets' toolbox: How stigmatized targets deflect discrimination by invoking a common identity. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35(1), 141–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, S. D., Blank, T. O., Bellizzi, K. M., & Park, C. L. (2012). The relationship of coping strategies, social support, and attachment style with posttraumatic growth in cancer survivors. Journal of Health Psychology, 17(7), 1033–1040.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schoendorff, B., Webster, M., & Polk, K. (2014). Under the hood: Basic processes underlying the matrix. In K. Polk, B. Schoendorff, & K. G. Wilson (Eds.), The ACT matrix: A new approach to building psychological flexibility across settings and populations (pp. 15–40). Oakland: New Harbinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scoglio, A. A., Rudat, D. A., Garvert, D., Jarmolowski, M., Jackson, C., & Herman, J. L. (2015). Self-compassion and responses to trauma the role of emotion regulation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515622296.

  • Seligowski, A. V., Miron, L. R., & Orcutt, H. K. (2015). Relations among self-compassion, PTSD symptoms, and psychological health in a trauma-exposed sample. Mindfulness, 6(5), 1033–1041. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0351-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, S. L., Brown, K. W., & Biegel, G. M. (2007). Teaching self-care to caregivers: Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on the mental health of therapists in training. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 1(2), 105. https://doi.org/10.1037/1931-3918.1.2.105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, M. L., Fear, N. T., Rona, R. J., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., Jones, N., & Goodwin, L. (2015). Stigma as a barrier to seeking health care among military personnel with mental health problems. Epidemiologic Reviews, 37(1), 144–162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherbourne, C. D., & Stewart, A. L. (1991). The MOS social support survey. Social Science & Medicine, 32(6), 705–714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L. (2006). The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 183–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Showers, C. J., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2003). Organization of self-knowledge: Features, functions, and flexibility. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 47–67). New York, NY: US: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2015). Self-compassion, stress, and coping in the context of chronic illness. Self and Identity, 14(3), 334–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.996249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinta, M. D., Brandrett, B. D., Schenk, W. C., Wells, G., & Dilley, J. W. (2014). Shame, self-acceptance and disclosure in the lives of gay men living with HIV: An interpretative phenomenological analysis approach. Psychology & Health, 29(5), 583–597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinta, M. D., Lezama, M., Wells, G., & Dilley, J. W. (2015). Acceptance and compassion-based group therapy to reduce HIV stigma. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 22(4), 481–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smart, L., & Wegner, D. M. (1999). Covering up what can't be seen: Concealable stigma and mental control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(3), 474–486.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smeets, E., Neff, K., Alberts, H., & Peters, M. (2014). Meeting suffering with kindness: Effects of a brief self-compassion intervention for female college students. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70(9), 794–807.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. A., Lumley, M. A., & Longo, D. J. (2002). Contrasting emotional approach coping with passive coping for chronic myofascial pain. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 24(4), 326–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324796ABM2404_09.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stanton, A. L., Danoff-Burg, S., Cameron, C. L., Bishop, M., Collins, C. A., Kirk, S. B., ... , & Twillman, R. (2000a). Emotionally expressive coping predicts psychological and physical adjustment to breast cancer. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 875–882. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006X.68.5.875.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stanton, A. L., Kirk, S. B., Cameron, C. L., & Danoff-Burg, S. (2000b). Coping through emotional approach: Scale construction and validation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(6), 1150–1169. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.78.6.1150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 261–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strelan, P., & Zdaniuk, A. (2015). Threatened state self-esteem reduces forgiveness. Self and Identity, 14(1), 16–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strosahl, K. D., & Robinson, P. J. (2009). Teaching ACT: To whom, why and how. In J. T. Blackledge, J. Ciarrochi, & F. P. Deane (Eds.), Acceptance and commitment therapy: Contemporary theory, research and practice (pp. 59–85). Bowen Hills, Qld: Australian Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takada, S., Weiser, S. D., Kumbakumba, E., Muzoora, C., Martin, J. N., Hunt, P. W., More Authors, & Tsai, A. C. (2014). The dynamic relationship between social support and HIV-related stigma in rural Uganda. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 48(1), 26–37.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, D., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2015). Self-affirmation facilitates cardiovascular recovery following interpersonal evaluation. Biological Psychology, 104, 108–115.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The posttraumatic growth inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(3), 455–471.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terry, M. L., & Leary, M. R. (2011). Self-compassion, self-regulation, and health. Self and Identity, 10(3), 352–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, B. L., & Waltz, J. (2008). Self-compassion and PTSD symptom severity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(6), 556–558. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tirch, D., Schoendorff, B., & Silberstein, L. R. (2014). The ACT practitioner’s guide to the science of compassion: Tools for fostering psychological flexibility. Oakland: New Harbinger Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vartanian, L. R., & Porter, A. M. (2016). Weight stigma and eating behavior: A review of the literature. Appetite, 102, 3–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vowles, K. E., Witkiewitz, K., Sowden, G., & Ashworth, J. (2014). Acceptance and commitment therapy for chronic pain: Evidence of mediation and clinically significant change following an abbreviated interdisciplinary program of rehabilitation. The Journal of Pain, 15(1), 101–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wasylkiw, L., & Clairo, J. (2016). Help seeking in men: When masculinity and self-compassion collide. Psychology of Men & Masculinity. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000086.

  • Waugh, O. C., Byrne, D. G., & Nicholas, M. K. (2014). Internalized stigma in people living with chronic pain. The Journal of Pain, 15(5), 550–e551.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the Internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 748–762.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, M. J., Dalgleish, T., Karl, A., & Kuyken, W. (2014). Examining the factor structures of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire and the self-compassion scale. Psychological Assessment, 26(2), 407–418.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Witvliet, C. V. O., Ludwig, T. E., & Vander Laan, K. L. (2001). Granting forgiveness or harboring grudges: Implications for emotion, physiology, and health. Psychological Science, 12(2), 117–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wohl, M. J., & Branscombe, N. R. (2005). Forgiveness and collective guilt assignment to historical perpetrator groups depend on level of social category inclusiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(2), 288–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, C. C. Y., & Mak, W. W. S. (2013). Differentiating the role of three self-compassion components in buffering cognitive-personality vulnerability to depression among Chinese in Hong Kong. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(1), 162–169.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, C. C. Y., Mak, W. W. S., & Liao, K. Y. H. (2016). Self-compassion: A potential buffer against affiliate stigma experienced by parents of children with autism spectrum disorders. Mindfulness, 7(6), 1385–1395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, C. C. Y., Petit, W., Zhang, R. R., & Mak, W. W. S. (in preparation). Self-love to conquer stigma: A mediation model to understand the relationship between self-compassion and help-seeking intention.

  • Wong, C. C. Y., & Yeung, N. C. Y. (2017). Self-compassion and posttraumatic growth: Cognitive processes as mediators. Mindfulness. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0683-4.

  • Worthington, E. L., & Scherer, M. (2004). Forgiveness is an emotion-focused coping strategy that can reduce health risks and promote health resilience: Theory, review, and hypotheses. Psychology & Health, 19(3), 385–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yadavaia, J. E., & Hayes, S. C. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy for self-stigma around sexual orientation: A multiple baseline evaluation. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 19(4), 545–559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yanos, P. T., Lucksted, A., Drapalski, A. L., Roe, D., & Lysaker, P. (2015). Interventions targeting mental health self-stigma: A review and comparison. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 38(2), 171–178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yanos, P. T., Roe, D., Markus, K., & Lysaker, P. H. (2008). Pathways between internalized stigma and outcomes related to recovery in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Psychiatric Services, 59(12), 1437–1442.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yarnell, L. M., & Neff, K. D. (2013). Self-compassion, interpersonal conflict resolutions, and well-being. Self and Identity, 12(2), 146–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ying, Y. W. (2009). Contribution of self-compassion to competence and mental health in social work students. Journal of Social Work Education, 45(2), 309–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ysseldyk, R., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2007). Rumination: Bridging a gap between forgivingness, vengefulness, and psychological health. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(8), 1573–1584.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zessin, U., Dickhäuser, O., & Garbade, S. (2015). The relationship between self-compassion and well-being: A meta-analysis. Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being, 7(3), 340–364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Fred J. Heyne Building Rm 126, 3695 Cullen Boulevard, Houston, TX, 77204-5022, USA

    Celia Ching Yee Wong, C. Raymond Knee, Clayton Neighbors & Michael J. Zvolensky

Authors
  1. Celia Ching Yee Wong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. C. Raymond Knee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Clayton Neighbors
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michael J. Zvolensky
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Celia Ching Yee Wong.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wong, C.C.Y., Knee, C.R., Neighbors, C. et al. Hacking Stigma by Loving Yourself: a Mediated-Moderation Model of Self-Compassion and Stigma. Mindfulness 10, 415–433 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0984-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0984-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation