Abstract
Introduction
Hopelessness is widespread among gay men, and it is of great academic value to identify personal factors that can ameliorate their hopelessness. The objective of this study was to determine whether self-compassion is associated with decreased hopelessness in young gay men, and explore the mediating effects of two types of maladaptive coping strategies (concealment of gay identity and rumination) on this relationship.
Methods
In 2020, 370 Chinese young gay men recruited via the Internet were assessed by self-reported scales measuring self-compassion, concealment of gay identity, rumination, and hopelessness.
Results
Findings showed that self-compassion was negatively correlated with hopelessness in young gay men. Rumination mediated the relation between self-compassion and hopelessness, and the size of this mediation effect was larger than other mediation effects. Concealment of gay identity and rumination also played a sequential mediating role between self-compassion and hopelessness, but the independent mediation effect of concealment of gay identity was not statistically significant.
Conclusion
Self-compassion contributes to decreased hopelessness among young gay men via the reduction of concealment of gay identity and rumination.
Policy Implications
Policy makers need to give more support to programs that strengthen individual self-compassion, such as compassion-focused therapy, to effectively reduce hopelessness among young gay men.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen, A. B., & Leary, M. R. (2010). Self-compassion, stress, and coping. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4, 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00246.x
Amodeo, A. L., Esposito, C., Bochicchio, V., Valerio, P., Vitelli, R., Bacchini, D., & Scandurra, C. (2018). Parenting desire and minority stress in lesbians and gay men: A mediation framework. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15, 2318. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102318
Anderson, R. S. (2019). Self-compassion versus self-esteem for an experience of ostracism (Doctoral dissertation, University of Denver).
Beard, K., Eames, C., & Withers, P. (2017). The role of self-compassion in the well-being of self-identifying gay men. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 21, 77–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2016.1233163
Beck, A. T. (1986). Hopelessness as a predictor of eventual suicide. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 487, 90–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1986.tb27888.x
Boffa, J. W., King, S. L., Turecki, G., & Schmidt, N. B. (2018). Investigating the role of hopelessness in the relationship between PTSD symptom change and suicidality. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 298–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.004
Bolland, J. M., McCallum, D. M., Lian, B., Bailey, C. J., & Rowan, P. (2001). Hopelessness and violence among inner-city youths. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 5, 237–244. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1013028805470
Brown, S. L., Hughes, M., Campbell, S., & Cherry, M. G. (2020). Could worry and rumination mediate relationships between self‐compassion and psychological distress in breast cancer survivors? Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 27, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2399
Camacho, G., Reinka, M. A., & Quinn, D. M. (2020). Disclosure and concealment of stigmatized identities. Current Opinion in Psychology, 31, 28–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.07.031
Chan, K., & Fung, W. (2021). Differential impact of experienced and anticipated discrimination on sleep and health among sexual minorities. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50, 3053–3063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-01981-2
Chan, K., & Leung, D. (2021). The impact of mindfulness on self-stigma and affective symptoms among sexual minorities. Journal of Affective Disorders, 286, 213–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.02.057
Chan, K., & Yip, C. (2021). The impact of psychological flexibility on sexual identity stress and well-being among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 91, 660–670. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000567
Chan, K., Yung, C. S. W., & Nie, G. M. (2020). Self-compassion buffers the negative psychological impact of stigma stress on sexual minorities. Mindfulness, 11, 2338–2348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01451-1
Chang, C. J., Fehling, K. B., Feinstein, B. A., & Selby, E. A. (2021). Unique risk factors for suicide attempt among bisexual/pansexual versus gay/lesbian individuals. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2021.1943733
Chishima, Y., Mizuno, M., Sugawara, D., & Miyagawa, Y. (2018). The influence of self-compassion on cognitive appraisals and coping with stressful events. Mindfulness, 9, 1907–1915. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0933-0
Chu, X. W., Fan, C. Y., Liu, Q. Q., & Zhou, Z. K. (2018). Cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety among Chinese adolescents: Examining hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator. Computers in Human Behavior, 86, 377–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.04.039
Dupasquier, J. R., Kelly, A. C., Moscovitch, D. A., & Vidovic, V. (2018). Practicing self-compassion weakens the relationship between fear of receiving compassion and the desire to conceal negative experiences from others. Mindfulness, 9, 500–511. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0792-0
Dupasquier, J. R., Kelly, A. C., Moscovitch, D. A., & Vidovic, V. (2020). Cultivating self-compassion promotes disclosure of experiences that threaten self-esteem. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 44, 108–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-019-10050-x
Dürrbaum, T., & Sattler, F. A. (2020). Minority stress and mental health in lesbian, gay male, and bisexual youths: A meta-analysis. Journal of LGBT Youth, 17, 298–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361653.2019.1586615
Efron, B., & Tibshirani, R. (1985). The bootstrap method for assessing statistical accuracy. Behaviormetrika, 12, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.2333/bhmk.12.17_1
Friedlander, A., Nazem, S., Fiske, A., Nadorff, M. R., & Smith, M. D. (2012). Self-concealment and suicidal behaviors. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 42, 332–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1943-278X.2012.00094.x
Fuller, C. M., Simmering, M. J., Atinc, G., Atinc, Y., & Babin, B. J. (2016). Common methods variance detection in business research. Journal of Business Research, 69, 3192–3198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.12.008
Gilbert, P. (2009). Introducing compassion-focused therapy. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 15, 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.107.005264
Gilbert, P., Catarino, F., Duarte, C., Matos, M., Kolts, R., Stubbs, J., & Basran, J. (2017). The development of compassionate engagement and action scales for self and others. Journal of Compassionate Health Care, 4, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40639-017-0033-3
Haltom, T. M., & Ratcliff, S. (2021). Effects of sex, race, and education on the timing of coming out among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the U.S. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50, 1107–1120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01776-x
Han, X. (2010). Research on graduates’ rumination and its relationship with perfectionism and mental health. M.A. Thesis. Zhejiang University, Hangzhou.
Harvey, J., & Boynton, K. (2021). Self-disclosure and psychological resilience: The mediating roles of self-esteem and self-compassion. Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships, 15, 90–104. https://doi.org/10.5964/ijpr.4533
Hatchel, T., Polanin, J. R., & Espelage, D. L. (2021). Suicidal thoughts and behaviors among LGBTQ youth: Meta-analyses and a systematic review. Archives of Suicide Research: Official Journal of the International Academy for Suicide Research, 25, 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2019.1663329
Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma “get under the skin”? A psychological mediation framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 707–730. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016441
Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford publications. 9781462534654.
Hirsch, J. K., Cohn, T. J., Rowe, C. A., & Rimmer, S. E. (2017). Minority sexual orientation, gender identity status and suicidal behavior: Serial indirect effects of hope, hopelessness and depressive symptoms. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 15, 260–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-016-9723-x
Hirsch, J. K., Hall, B. B., Wise, H. A., Brooks, B. D., Chang, E. C., & Sirois, F. M. (2019). Negative life events and suicide risk in college students: Conditional indirect effects of hopelessness and self-compassion. Journal of American College Health, 69, 546–553. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2019.1692023
Huang, J., Lin, K., Fan, L., Qiao, S., & Wang, Y. (2021). The effects of a self-compassion intervention on future-oriented coping and psychological well-being: A randomized controlled trial in Chinese college students. Mindfulness, 12, 1451–1458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-021-01614-8
Jang, H., Woo, H., & Lee, I. (2020). Effects of self-compassion and social support on lesbian, gay, and bisexual college students’ positive identity and career decision-making. Journal of Counseling & Development, 98, 402–411. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12342
Jennings, L. K., & Tan, P. P. (2014). Self-compassion and life satisfaction in gay men. Psychological Reports, 115, 888–895. https://doi.org/10.2466/21.07.PR0.115c33z3
Kelliher, R. J., Sirois, F. M., & Hirsch, J. K. (2018). Self-compassion and suicidal behavior in college students: Serial indirect effects via depression and wellness behaviors. Journal of American College Health, 66, 114–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2017.1382498
Kelliher, R. J., Sirois, F. M., Barton, A. L., & Hirsch, J. K. (2022). Self-compassion and suicidal behavior: Indirect effects of depression, anxiety, and hopelessness across increasingly vulnerable samples. Self and Identity, 21, 223–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2021.1884592
Khosrobeigi, M., Hafezi, F., Naderi, F., & Ehteshamzadeh, P. (2021). Effectiveness of self-compassion training on hopelessness and resilience in parents of children with cancer. Explore. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2021.04.003
Kock, F., Berbekova, A., & Assaf, A. G. (2021). Understanding and managing the threat of common method bias: Detection, prevention and control. Tourism Management. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104330
Krieger, T., Altenstein, D., Baettig, I., Doerig, N., & Holtforth, M. G. (2013). Self-compassion in depression: Associations with depressive symptoms, rumination, and avoidance in depressed outpatients. Behavior Therapy, 44, 501–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2013.04.004
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company; ISBN 0826141919.
Leaviss, J., & Uttley, L. (2015). Psychotherapeutic benefits of compassion-focused therapy: An early systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 45, 927–945. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291714002141
Lew, B., Huen, J., Yu, P., Yuan, L., Wang, D. F., Ping, F., Abu Talib, M., Lester, D., & Jia, C. X. (2019). Associations between depression, anxiety, stress, hopelessness, subjective well-being, coping styles and suicide in Chinese university students. PLoS ONE, 14, e0217372. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217372
Li, F., Liao, J., Sun, X., Yang, T., Li, T., Wang, Y., & Mei, Y. (2021a). Does self-concept clarity relate to depressive symptoms in Chinese gay men? The mediating effects of sexual orientation concealment and gay community connectedness. Sexuality Research and Social Policy. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-021-00666-8
Li, F., Wang, Y., & Xing, J. (2021b). Two sources of autonomy support and depressive symptoms among Chinese gay men: The sequential mediating effect of internalized homonegativity and rumination. Journal of Affective Disorders, 280, 373–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.11.003
Li, F., Wang, Y., Xing, J., & Zheng, X. (2018). Internalized homonegativity among homosexuals: Formation and influence mechanisms. Journal of Psychological Science, 41, 1470–1476.
Lin, L., Yu, L., Chenxu, W., Juanchan, M., Junqi, L., Zhehao, J., & Xuji, J. (2018). The role of hopelessness and gratitude in the association between rumination and college students’ suicidal ideation: A moderate mediation model. Studies of Psychology and Behavior, 16, 549–556.
Liu, A., Wang, W., & Wu, X. (2021). The mediating role of rumination in the relation between self-compassion, posttraumatic stress disorder, and posttraumatic growth among adolescents after the Jiuzhaigou earthquake. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01643-5
Liu, H., Feng, T., Ha, T., Liu, H., Cai, Y., Liu, X., & Li, J. (2011). Chinese culture, homosexuality stigma, social support and condom use: A path analytic model. Stigma Research and Action, 1, 27–35. https://doi.org/10.5463/sra.v1i1.16
Lysaker, P. H., Roe, D., & Yanos, P. T. (2007). Toward understanding the insight paradox: Internalized stigma moderates the association between insight and social functioning, hope, and self-esteem among people with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33, 192–199. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbl016
Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Effects of self-focused rumination on negative thinking and interpersonal problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 176–190. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.1.176
Matos, M., Carvalho, S. A., Cunha, M., Galhardo, A., & Sepodes, C. (2017). Psychological flexibility and self-compassion in gay and heterosexual men: How they relate to childhood memories, shame, and depressive symptoms. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 11, 88–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2017.1310007
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
Miranda, R., Tsypes, A., Gallagher, M., & Rajappa, K. (2013). Rumination and hopelessness as mediators of the relation between perceived emotion dysregulation and suicidal ideation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 37, 786–795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-013-9524-5
Mutchler, M. G., McDavitt, B. W., Tran, T. N., Khoury, C. E., Ballan, E., Tohme, J., Kegeles, S. M., & Wagner, G. (2018). This is who we are: Building community for HIV prevention with young gay and bisexual men in Beirut, Lebanon. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 20, 690–703. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2017.1371334
Neff, K. D. (2003). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2, 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
Neff, K. D. (2016). The Self-compassion scale is a valid and theoretically coherent measure of self-compassion. Mindfulness, 7, 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0479-3
Neff, K. D., Kirkpatrick, K. L., & Rude, S. S. (2007). Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 139–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.004
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 259–282. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.259
Odou, N., & Brinker, J. (2015). Self-compassion, a better alternative to rumination than distraction as a response to negative mood. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 10, 447–457. http:// doi.org /https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.967800
Oexle, N., Ajdacic-Gross, V., Kilian, R., Müller, M., Rodgers, S., Xu, Z., Rössler, W., & Rüsch, N. (2017). Mental illness stigma, secrecy and suicidal ideation. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 26, 53–60. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796015001018
Oexle, N., Herrmann, K., Staiger, T., Sheehan, L., Rüsch, N., & Krumm, S. (2019). Stigma and suicidality among suicide attempt survivors: A qualitative study. Death Studies, 43, 381–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2018.1474286
Pachankis, J. E. (2007). The psychological implications of concealing a stigma: A cognitive-affective-behavioral model. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 328–345. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.328
Petrocchi, N., Matos, M., Carvalho, S. & Baiocco, R. (2016). Compassion-focused therapy in the treatment of shame-based difficulties in gender and sexual minorities. In Skinta, M.D. & Curtin, A. (2016). Mindfulness and acceptance for gender and sexual minorities. Oakland, CA: Context Press. 1, pp. 69–86. http://hdl.handle.net/10316/47269
Prestage, G., Hammoud, M., Jin, F., Degenhardt, L., Bourne, A., & Maher, L. (2018). Mental health, drug use and sexual risk behavior among gay and bisexual men. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 55, 169–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.01.020
Proulx, C. N., Coulter, R., Egan, J. E., Matthews, D. D., & Mair, C. (2019). Associations of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning-inclusive sex education with mental health outcomes and school-based victimization in U.S. high school students. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 64, 608–614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.11.012
Raes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., & Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the self-compassion scale. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 18, 250–255. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.702
Rafiee, Z., Karami, J., & Rezaei, M. (2019). The effectiveness of self-compassion group training on raising hope in diabetics. International Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 13, 40–45. http://www.behavsci.ir/article_91608.html
Sarno, E. L., Newcomb, M. E., & Mustanski, B. (2020). Rumination longitudinally mediates the association of minority stress and depression in sexual and gender minority individuals. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 129, 355–363. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000508
Schrimshaw, E. W., Siegel, K., Downing, M. J., & Parsons, J. T. (2013). Disclosure and concealment of sexual orientation and the mental health of non-gay-identified, behaviorally bisexual men. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81, 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031272
Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2015). Self-compassion, stress, and coping in the context of chronic illness. Self and Identity, 14, 334–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.996249
Timmins, L., Rimes, K. A., & Rahman, Q. (2017). Minority stressors and psychological distress in transgender individuals. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4, 328–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000237
Timmins, L., Rimes, K. A., & Rahman, Q. (2020). Minority stressors, rumination, and psychological distress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 661–680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01502-2
Toplu-Demirtaş, E., Kemer, G., Pope, A. L., & Moe, J. L. (2018). Self-compassion matters: The relationships between perceived social support, self-compassion, and subjective well-being among LGB individuals in Turkey. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65, 372–382. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000261
Vally, Z., Alghraibeh, A. M., & Elhai, J. D. (2021). Severity of depression and anxiety in relation to problematic smartphone use in the United Arab Emirates: The mediational roles of rumination and fear of missing out. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 3, 423–431. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.259
Weir, K. F., & Jose, P. E. (2008). A comparison of the response styles theory and the hopelessness theory of depression in preadolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 28, 356–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431608314662
Zeglin, R. J., Terrell, K. R., Barr, E. M., & Moore, M. J. (2020). Depression in high school: Lesbian, gay, and bisexual identity as a moderator of sexual assault. The Journal of School Health, 90, 703–710. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12934
Funding
This study was supported by Sichuan Sex Sociology and Sex Education Research Center Project (SXJYA2103).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
FL and JL designed the study, collected and analyzed the data, and wrote and revised the manuscript. LL analyzed the data, and wrote and revised the manuscript. TY, XD, and JL collected the data and revised the manuscript. All the authors approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Li, F., Liao, J., Liu, L. et al. Self-Compassion Contributes to Decreased Hopelessness in Young Gay Men: Two Types of Maladaptive Coping Strategies as Mediators. Sex Res Soc Policy 19, 1650–1661 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-022-00730-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-022-00730-x