Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Raman spectroscopy of natron: shedding light on ancient Egyptian mummification

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The mummification ritual in ancient Egypt involved the evisceration of the corpse and its desiccation using natron, a naturally occurring evaporitic mineral deposit from the Wadi Natrun, Egypt. The deposit typically contains sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and impurities of chloride and sulfate as its major elemental components. It is believed that the function of the natron was to rapidly remove the water from the cadaver to prevent microbial attack associated with subsequent biological tissue degradation and putrefaction. Several specimens of natron that were recently collected from the Wadi Natrun contained coloured zones interspersed with the mineral matrix that are superficially reminiscent of extremophilic cyanobacterial colonisation found elsewhere in hot and cold deserts. Raman spectroscopy of these specimens using visible and near-infrared laser excitation has revealed not only the mineral composition of the natron, but also evidence for the presence of cyanobacterial colonies in several coloured zones observed in the mineral matrix. Key Raman biosignatures of carotenoids, scytonemin and chlorophyll have been identified.

The mummification ritual in ancient Egypt involved the evisceration of the corpse and its desiccation using natron, a naturally occurring evaporitic mineral deposit from the Wadi Natrun, Egypt. The deposit typically contains sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and impurities of chloride and sulfate as its major elemental components. It is believed that the function of the natron was to rapidly remove the water from the cadaver to prevent microbial attack associated with subsequent biological tissue degradation and putrefaction. Several specimens of natron that were recently collected from the Wadi Natrun contained coloured zones interspersed with the mineral matrix that are superficially reminiscent of extremophilic cyanobacterial colonisation found elsewhere in hot and cold deserts. Raman spectroscopy of these specimens using visible and near-infrared laser excitation has revealed not only the mineral composition of the natron, but also evidence for the presence of cyanobacterial colonies in several coloured zones observed in the mineral matrix. Key Raman biosignatures of carotenoids, scytonemin and chlorophyll have been identified.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. David AR (1978) Mysteries of the mummies. Book Club Associates, London

  2. Herodotus (1910) History, book II:86. Dent, London (transl. by Rawlinson G)

  3. Cockburn A, Cockburn E, Reyman TA (1998) Mummies, disease and ancient cultures, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 20–30

  4. Mokhtar G, Riad H, Iskander S (1973) Mummification in ancient Egypt. Cairo Museum, Cairo

  5. Lucas A (1962) Ancient Egyptian materials and industries, 4th edn. E. Arnold, London (rev., transl. by Harris JR)

  6. Vitruvius (1999) The ten books on architecture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

  7. Edwards HGM, Moody CD, Newton EM, Jorge Villar SE, Russell MJ (2005) Icarus 175:372–381

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Edwards HGM, Mohsin MA, Sadooni FA, Nikhassan NF, Munshi T (2006) Anal Bioanal Chem 385:46–56

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Edwards HGM, Jorge Villar SE, Parnell JA, Cockell CS, Lee P (2005) Analyst 130:917–923

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Cockell CS, Knowland J (1999) Biol Rev 74:311–345

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Wynn-Williams DD, Edwards HGM (2000) Icarus 144:486–503

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Wynn-Williams DD, Edwards HGM (2000) Planet Space Sci 48:1065–1075

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Wynn-Williams DD, Edwards HGM (2002) Environmental UV radiation: biological strategies for protection and avoidance. In: Horneck G, Baumstark-Khan C (eds) Astrobiology: the quest for the conditions of life. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 245–260

    Google Scholar 

  14. Wynn-Williams DD, Edwards HGM (2002) Int J Astrobiol 1:39–49

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Veronelli M, Zerbi G, Stradi R (1995) J Raman Spectrosc 26:683–692

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Withnall R, Chowdhury BZ, Silver J, Edwards HGM, de Oliveira LFC (2003) Spectrochim Acta Part A 59:2221–2246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Jorge Villar SE, Edwards HGM, Benning G (2006) Icarus 184:158–169

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Edwards HGM, Moeller R, Jorge Villar SE, Horneck G, Stackebrandt E (2006) Int J Astrobiol 5:313–318

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Shortland AJ (2004) Archaeometry 46:497–516

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Falb M, Pfeiffer F, Palm P, Rodewald K, Hickmann V, Tittor J, Oesterhelt D (2005) Genome Res 15:1336–1343

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Hamed AF (2005) Acta Botanica Hung 47:117–136

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Chemical and Forensic Sciences, School of Life Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, BD7 1DP, UK

    Howell G. M. Edwards & Hassan R. H. Ali

  2. Area de Geodinamica Interna, Facultad de Humanidades y Educacion, Universidad de Burgos, Calle Villadiego s/n, 09001, Burgos, Spain

    Susana E. Jorge Villar

  3. KNH Centre for Biomedical Egyptology, University of Manchester, Stopford Building, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK

    Katherine J. Currie, A. Rosalie David & John Denton

Authors
  1. Howell G. M. Edwards
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Katherine J. Currie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Hassan R. H. Ali
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Susana E. Jorge Villar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. A. Rosalie David
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. John Denton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Howell G. M. Edwards.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Edwards, H.G.M., Currie, K.J., Ali, H.R.H. et al. Raman spectroscopy of natron: shedding light on ancient Egyptian mummification. Anal Bioanal Chem 388, 683–689 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-007-1249-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-007-1249-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation