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Drinking water quality in Nepal’s Kathmandu Valley: a survey and assessment of selected controlling site characteristics

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Abstract

Water was sampled from over 100 sources in Nepal’s Kathmandu Valley, including municipal taps, dug wells, shallow-aquifer tube wells, deep-aquifer tube wells, and dhunge dharas (or stone spouts, public water sources that capture groundwater or surface water). Information was gathered on user preference and site and well characteristics, and water was examined for indicators of contamination from sewage, agriculture, or industry. Most problematic were total coliform and Escherichia coli bacteria, which were present in 94 and 72% of all the water samples, respectively. Contamination by nitrate, ammonia and heavy metals was more limited; nitrate and ammonia exceeded Nepali guidelines in 11 and 45% of the samples, respectively. Arsenic and mercury exceeded WHO guidelines in 7 and 10% of the samples, respectively, but arsenic never exceeded the less strict Nepali guideline. Significant differences existed in contamination levels between types of sources; dug wells and dhunge dharas, being the shallowest, were the most contaminated by bacteria and nitrate; deep-aquifer tube wells were the most contaminated by arsenic. Whereas E. coli concentrations decreased with depth, iron and ammonia concentrations increased with depth. These relationships account for people choosing to drink water with higher levels of bacterial contamination based on its superior (non-metallic) taste and appearance.

Résumé

Plus de 100 points d’eau de la Vallée de Kathmandu au Népal ont été échantillonnés, incluant des bornes municipales, des puits artisanaux, des forages dans des aquifères phréatiques, des forages dans des aquifères profonds et des dhunge dharas (sources publiques aménagées, qui captent les eaux souterraines ou de surface). Des informations ont été recueillies concernant les préférences des usagers ainsi que les caractéristiques du site et du puits, et l’eau a été analysée pour les indicateurs de contamination par les égouts, l’agriculture ou l’industrie. Les coliformes totaux et les bactéries Escherichia coli sont les plus problématiques, présents dans respectivement 94 et 72% des échantillons. La contamination par les nitrates, l’ammonium et les métaux lourds est plus limitée; 11 et 45% des échantillons excédant les normes népalaises en nitrates et ammonium, respectivement. Les concentrations en arsenic et en mercure étaient supérieures aux normes de l’OMS dans 7 et 10% des échantillons, respectivement, mais l’arsenic n’a jamais excédé la norme népalaise, moins stricte. Des différences importantes du niveau de contamination ont été notées entre les différents type de points d’eau ; les moins profonds de type puits artisanaux et dhunge dharas étaient affectés par les bactéries et les nitrates ; les forages dans les aquifères profonds étaient les plus contaminés par l’arsenic. Tandis que la concentration en E. Coli décroît avec la profondeur, les concentrations en fer et ammonium augmentent. Cette relation est importante, car des gens choisissent de boire une eau avec de fortes concentrations en bactéries, se basant plus sur l’apparence et l’aspect gustatif (non-métallique).

Resumen

En el Valle de Kathmandu (Nepal), se muestreó agua de aproximadamente 100 puntos de agua, incluyendo llaves municipales, pozos excavados, sondeos en acuíferos someros, sondeos en acuíferos profundos y dhunge dharas (o surtidores de piedra, fuentes públicas de agua que suministran aguas subterráneas o superficiales). La información fue recogida según las preferencias de los usuarios y las características del punto y del pozo, y el agua se analizaron indicadores de contaminación de aguas fecales, agricultura o industria. El mayor problema fue el total de coliformes y las bacterias Escherichia coli, que estaban presentes en el 94 y el 72% de todas las muestras de agua, respectivamente. La contaminación por nitratos, amonio y metales pesados fue más limitada; los nitratos y el amonio excede las normas Nepalíes en el 11 y 45% de las muestras, respectivamente. El arsénico y el mercurio exceden las normas WHO en un 7 y un 10% de las muestras, respectivamente, pero el arsénico no excede en ningún caso las normas Nepalíes, menos estrictas. Existen diferencias significativas en los niveles de contaminación entre los tipos de puntos de agua; los pozos excavados y los dhunge dharas, como son los más someros, son los más contaminados por bacterias y nitratos; los sondeos de acuíferos profundos son los más contaminados por arsénico. Mientras que las concentraciones de E. coli descendieron con la profundidad, las concentraciones de hierro y amonio se incrementaron con la misma. Estas relaciones condicionan que la gente elija beber agua con un nivel alto de contaminación por bacterias debido a su mejor gusto (no metálico) y su apariencia.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the numerous supporters whose time, effort and funding have made this research possible. The project was funded by a Hampton Grant from Miami University, the Department of Geology, Miami University, and the Geological Society of America. Dr. Janardan Subedi and Dilip Croung gave us guidance, logistics, and support while within Nepal and made the sampling process a possibility. Apex Trekking also provided guidance and language interpretation while in Nepal. We would also like to thank The Hotel Tibet, Kathmandu for providing housing and laboratory facilities. K. Harpp would like to acknowledge support for ICP-MS operation from NSF grant CHE-9996136.

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Correspondence to Nathaniel R. Warner.

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Warner, N.R., Levy, J., Harpp, K. et al. Drinking water quality in Nepal’s Kathmandu Valley: a survey and assessment of selected controlling site characteristics. Hydrogeol J 16, 321–334 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-007-0238-1

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