Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Age at Adoption from Institutional Care as a Window into the Lasting Effects of Early Experiences

  • Published:
Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

One of the major questions of human development is how early experience impacts the course of development years later. Children adopted from institutional care experience varying levels of deprivation in their early life followed by qualitatively better care in an adoptive home, providing a unique opportunity to study the lasting effects of early deprivation and its timing. The effects of age at adoption from institutional care are discussed for multiple domains of social and behavioral development within the context of several prominent developmental hypotheses about the effects of early deprivation (cumulative effects, experience-expectant developmental programming, and experience-adaptive developmental programming). Age at adoption effects are detected in a majority of studies, particularly when children experienced global deprivation and were assessed in adolescence. For most outcomes, institutionalization beyond a certain age is associated with a step-like increase in risk for lasting social and behavioral problems, with the step occurring at an earlier age for children who experienced more severe levels of deprivation. Findings are discussed in terms of their concordance and discordance with our current hypotheses, and speculative explanations for the findings are offered.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. These meta-analyses utilized an internationally adopted sample that was not exclusively institution-reared, but most studies included a majority of institution-reared children.

  2. An additional meta-analysis (van den Dries et al. 2009) did not report whether participants were institution-reared, but will still be included in this review because the majority of component studies focused on institution-reared children.

  3. Over half of the Chinese sample experienced an average of 8.4 months of foster care, so it is possible that this Chinese sample was less deprived than otherwise might be expected.

  4. A strict understanding of sensitive periods suggests that sensitive periods lie at the level of circuits, not complex behaviors like those described here (Zeanah et al. 2011). While this discussion considers only complex behaviors, it is understood that multiple circuit-level sensitive periods underlie these behaviors.

Abbreviations

PI:

Post-institutionalized

DSP:

Deprivation-specific problems

I/O:

Inattention/overactivity

RAD:

Reactive attachment disorder

DSB:

Disinhibited social behavior

References

  • Ames, E. W. (1997). The development of Romanian orphanage children adopted to Canada: Final Report. Vancouver: Simon Fraser University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C. O., & Mason, W. A. (1974). Early experience and complexity of social organization in groups of young rhesus monkeys. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 87(4), 681–690.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audet, K., & Le Mare, L. (2010). Mitigating effects of the adoptive caregiving environment on inattention/overactivity in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(2), 107–115. doi:10.1177/0165025410373313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barcons, N., Abrines, N., Brun, C., Sartini, C., Fumado, V., & Marre, D. (2012). Social relationships in children from intercountry adoption. Children and Youth Services Review, 34, 955–961. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.01.028.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barcons-Castel, N., Fornieles-Deu, A., & Costas-Moragas, C. (2011). International adoption: Assessment of adaptive and maladaptive behavior of adopted minors in Spain. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 14(1), 123–132. doi:10.5209/rev_SJOP.2011v14.n1.10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beckett, C., Bredenkamp, D., Castle, J., Groothues, C., O’Connor, T. G., Rutter, M., et al. (2002). Behavior patterns associated with institutional deprivation: A study of children adopted from Romania. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23(5), 297–303.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bos, K. J., Fox, N., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. (2009). Effects of early psychosocial deprivation on the development of memory and executive function. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 3, 1–16. doi:10.3389/neuro.08.016.2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1951). Maternal care and mental health. (WHO Monograph No. 2). Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruce, J., Tarullo, A. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2009). Disinhibited social behavior among internationally adopted children. Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 157–171. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000108.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Camras, L. A., Perlman, S. B., Wismer Fries, A. B., & Pollak, S. D. (2006). Post-institutionalized Chinese and Eastern European children: Heterogeneity in the development of emotion understanding. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30(3), 193–199. doi:10.1177/0165025406063608.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., et al. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT Gene. Science, 301(5631), 386–389. doi:10.1126/science.1083968.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castle, J., Groothues, C., Bredenkamp, D., Beckett, C., O’Connor, T. G., & Rutter, M. (1999). Effects of qualities of early institutional care on cognitive attainment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69(4), 424–437.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cederblad, M., Höök, B., Irhammar, M., & Mercke, A. (1999). Mental health in international adoptees as teenagers and young adults. An epidemiological study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40(8), 1239–1248.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chisholm, K. (1998). A three year follow-up of attachment and indiscriminate friendliness in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Child Development, 69(4), 1092–1106.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chisholm, K., Carter, M. C., Ames, E. W., & Morison, S. J. (1995). Attachment security and indiscriminately friendly behavior in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 283–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, A. M., & Clarke, A. D. B. (2000). Early experience and the life path. London: Jessica Kingsley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, N. J., & Farnia, F. (2011). Social-emotional adjustment and attachment in children adopted from China: Processes and predictors of change. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(1), 67–77. doi:10.1177/0165025410371602.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colvert, E., Rutter, M., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Groothues, C., Hawkins, A., et al. (2008a). Emotional difficulties in early adolescence following severe early deprivation: Findings from the English and Romanian adoptees study. Development and Psychopathology, 20(2), 547–567. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000278.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colvert, E., Rutter, M., Kreppner, J., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Groothues, C., et al. (2008b). Do theory of mind and executive function deficits underlie the adverse outcomes associated with profound early deprivation? Findings from the English and Romanian Adoptees study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(7), 1057–1068. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9232-x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Croft, C., O’Connor, T. G., Keaveney, L., Groothues, C., Rutter, M., & The English and Romanian Adoption Study Team. (2001). Longitudinal change in parenting associated with developmental delay and catch-up. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(5), 649–659.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dalen, M. (2001). School performances among internationally adopted children in Norway. Adoption Quarterly, 5(2), 39–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalen, M., & Rygold, A. (2006). Educational achievement in adopted children from China. Adoption Quarterly, 9(4), 45–58. doi:10.1300/J145v09n04_03.

    Google Scholar 

  • Decker, S., & Omori, M. (2009). Age at adoption: Long-term measures of success in adulthood. Adoption Quarterly, 12(1), 37–52. doi:10.1080/10926750902791953.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elander, J., & Rutter, M. (1995). Use and development of the Rutter Parents’ and Teachers’ Scales. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, A., & McMahon, C. (2011). Anxiety among an Australian sample of young girls adopted from China. Adoption Quarterly, 14(3), 161–180. doi:10.1080/10926755.2011.560792.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, B. H., Fisher, P. A., & Zaharie, S. (2004). Predictors of disruptive behavior, developmental delays, anxiety, and affective symptomatology among institutionally reared Romanian children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(10), 1283–1292. doi:10.1097/01.Chi.0000136562.24085.160.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elmund, A., Lindblad, F., Vinnerljung, B., & Hjern, A. (2007). Intercountry adoptees in out-of-home care: a national cohort study. Acta Paediatrica, 96(3), 437–442. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2006.00149.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, L., Ames, E. W., Chisholm, K., & Savoie, L. (1997). Problems reported by parents of Romanian orphans adopted to British Colombia. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20(1), 67–82. doi:10.1080/016502597385441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleitman, I., & Savaya, R. (2011). Adjustment of adolescent adoptees: The role of age of adoption and exposure to pre-adoption stressors. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(5), 758–766. doi:10.1016/J.Childyouth.2010.11.020.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldfarb, W. (1943). The effects of early institutional care on adolescent personality. Journal of Experimental Education, 12, 106–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldfarb, W. (1944). Infant rearing as a factor in foster home replacement. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 14, 162–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldfarb, W. (1945). Effects of psychological deprivation in infnacy and subsequent stimulation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 102, 18–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldfarb, W. (1947). Variations in adolescent adjustment of institutionally-reared children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 17, 449–457.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldfarb, W. (1955). Emotional and intellectual consequences of psychologic deprivation in infancy: A re-evaluation. In P. Hoch & J. Zubin (Eds.), Psychopathology of childhood (pp. 105–119). New York: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldney, R. D., Donald, M., Sawyer, M. G., Kosky, R. J., & Priest, S. (1996). Emotional health of Indonesian adoptees living in Australian families. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 30(4), 534–539.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenough, W. T., Black, J. E., & Wallace, C. S. (1987). Experience and brain development. Child Development, 58(3), 539–559.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunnar, M. R. (2001). Effects of early deprivation: Findings from orphanage-reared infants and children. In C. A. Nelson & M. Luciana (Eds.), Handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience (pp. 617–629). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunnar, M. R. (2003). Integrating neuroscience and psychological approaches in the study of early experience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1008, 238–247. doi:10.1196/annals.1301.024.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunnar, M. R., Fisher, P. A., & The Early Experience, Stress, and Prevention Network. (2006). Bringing basic research on early experience and stress neurobiology to bear on preventive interventions for neglected and maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 18(3), 651–677.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunnar, M. R., Van Dulmen, M. H. M., & The International Adoption Project Team. (2007). Behavior problems in postinstitutionalized internationally adopted children. Development and Psychopathology, 19(1), 129–148. doi:10.1017/S0954579407070071.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Habersaat, S. A., Tessier, R., & Pierrehumbert, B. (2011). International adoption: Influence of attachment and maternal monitoring style in the emergence of behavioural problems in adolescence in relation to age at adoption. Schweizer Archiv für Neurologie Und Psychiatrie, 162(1), 21–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harlow, H. F. (1958). The nature of love. American Psychologist, 13, 673–685.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harlow, H. F., & Novak, M. A. (1973). Psychopathological perspectives. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 16(3), 461–478.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawk, B. N., & McCall, R. B. (2011). Specific extreme behaviors of postinstitutionalized Russian adoptees. Developmental Psychology, 47(3), 732–738. doi:10.1037/a0021108.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, A. R. (1974). Cumulative deficit: A testable hypothesis? Developmental Psychology, 10(6), 996–1019.

    Google Scholar 

  • Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2005). Behavior problems and mental health referrals of international adoptees: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 293(20), 2501–2515. doi:10.1001/jama.293.20.2501.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kertes, D. A., Gunnar, M. R., Madsen, N. J., & Long, J. D. (2008). Early deprivation and home basal cortisol levels: A study of internationally adopted children. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 473–491. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000230.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knudsen, E. I. (2004). Sensitive periods in the development of brain and behavior. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16(8), 1412–1425. doi:10.1162/0898929042304796.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kraemer, G. W. (1992). A psychobiological theory of attachment. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15(3), 493–541.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreppner, J. M., O’Connor, T. G., Rutter, M., & The English and Romanian Adoption Study Team. (2001). Can inattention/overactivity be an institutional deprivation syndrome? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(6), 513–528.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kreppner, J. M., Rutter, M., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Colvert, E., Groothues, C., et al. (2007). Normality and impairment following profound early institutional deprivation: A longitudinal follow-up into early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 931–946. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.931.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kvifte Andresen, I.-L. (1992). Behavioural and school adjustment of 12–13-year old internationally adopted children in Norway: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33(2), 427–439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R. M., Seol, K. O., Sung, M., Miller, M. J., & Minnesota International Adoption Project Team. (2010). The behavioral development of Korean children in institutional care and international adoptive families. Developmental Psychology, 46(2), 468–478. doi:10.1037/a0017358.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindblad, F., Weitoft, G. R., & Hjern, A. (2010). ADHD in international adoptees: A national cohort study. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 19(1), 37–44. doi:10.1007/s00787-009-0038-3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacLean, K. (2003). The impact of institutionalization on child development. Development and Psychopathology, 15(4), 853–884.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marcovitch, S., Cesaroni, L., Roberts, W., & Swanson, C. (1995). Romanian adoption: Parents’ dreams, nightmares, and realities. Child Welfare, 74(5), 993–1017.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcovitch, S., Goldberg, S., Gold, A., Washington, J., Wasson, C., Krekewich, K., et al. (1997). Determinants of behavioural problems in Romanian children adopted to Ontario. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20(1), 17–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maurer, D., Mondloch, C. J., & Lewis, T. I. (2007). Sleeper effects. Developmental Science, 10(1), 40–47. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00562.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCall, R. B. (2011). IX. Research, practice, and policy perspectives on issues of children without permanent parental care. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76(4), 223–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meaney, M. J. (2010). Epigenetics and the biological definition of gene x environment interactions. Child Development, 81(1), 41–79. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01381.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mersky, J. P., Topitzes, J. D., & Reynolds, A. J. (2011). Maltreatment prevention through early childhood intervention: A confirmatory evaluation of the Chicago Child-Parent Center preschool program. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 1454–1463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merz, E. C., & McCall, R. B. (2010). Behavior problems in children adopted from psychosocially depriving institutions. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(4), 459–470. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9383-4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merz, E. C., & McCall, R. B. (2011). Parent ratings of executive functioning in children adopted from psychosocially depriving institutions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(5), 537–546. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02335.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, L., Chan, W., Tirella, L., & Perrin, E. (2009). Outcomes of children adopted from Eastern Europe. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 33(4), 289–298. doi:10.1177/0165025408098026.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2005). Excessive stress disrupts the architecture of the developing brain: Working paper #3. http://www.developingchild.net.

  • National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2008). Mental health problems in early childhood can impair learning and behavior for life: Working paper #6. http://www.developingchild.net.

  • National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2010). Persistent fear and anxiety can affect young children’s learning and development: Working paper No. 9. http://www.developingchild.net.

  • National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2011). Building the brain’s “Air Traffic Control” system: How early experiences shape the development of executive function: Working paper No. 11. http://www.developingchild.net.

  • Nielsen, A., Coleman, P. K., Guinn, M., & Robb, C. (2004). Length of institutionalization, contact with relatives, and previous hospitalizations as predictors of social and emotional behavior in young Ugandan orphans. Childhood, 11(1), 94–116. doi:10.1177/0907568204037116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niemann, S., & Weiss, S. (2012). Factors affecting attachment in international adoptees at 6 months post adoption. Children and Youth Services Review, 34, 205–212. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.10.001.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Novak, M. A., & Harlow, H. F. (1975). Social recovery of monkeys isolated for the first year of life: I. Rehabilitation and therapy. Developmental Psychology, 11, 453–465.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, T. G. (2003). Early experiences and psychological development: Conceptual questions, empirical illustrations, and implications for intervention. Development and Psychopathology, 15(3), 671–690. doi:10.1017.S0954579403000336.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, T. G., Bredenkamp, D., Rutter, M., & The English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team. (1999). Attachment disturbances and disorders in children exposed to early severe deprivation. Infant Mental Health Journal, 20(1), 10–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, T. G., Marvin, R. S., Rutter, M., Olrick, J. T., Britner, P. A., & The English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team. (2003). Child-parent attachment following early institutional deprivation. Development and Psychopathology, 15(1), 19–38. doi:10.1017.S0954579403000026.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, T. G., Rutter, M., & The English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team. (2000). Attachment disorder behavior following early severe deprivation: Extension and longitudinal follow-up. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(6), 703–712. doi:10.1097/00004583-200006000-00008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olds, D. L., Eckenrode, J., Henderson, C. R., Jr, Kitzman, H., Powers, J., Cole, R., et al. (1997). Long-term effects of home visitation on maternal life course and child abuse and neglect. Fifteen-year follow-up of a randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(8), 637–643.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira, P. S., Soares, I., Martins, C., Silva, J. R., Marques, S., Baptista, J., et al. (2012). Indiscriminate behavior observed in the strange situation among institutionalized toddlers: Relations to caregiver report and to early family risk. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33(2), 187–196. doi:10.1002/imhj.20336.

  • Parker, K. J., & Maestripieri, D. (2011). Identifying key features of early stressful experiences that produce stress vulnerability and resilience in primates. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(7), 1466–1483.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, A. J., & Robertson, D. (2003). School-based early intervention and later child maltreatment in the Chicago Longitudinal Study. Child Development, 74(1), 3–26.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rojewski, J. W., Shapiro, M. S., & Shapiro, M. (2000). Parental assessment of behavior in Chinese adoptees during early childhood. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 31(1), 79–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1981). Maternal deprivation reassessed (2nd ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (2003). Genetic influences on risk and protection: Implications for understanding resilience. In S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 489–509). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (2005a). Adverse preadoption experiences and psychological outcomes. In D. Brodzinsky & J. Palacios (Eds.), Psychological issues in adoption: Research and practice (pp. 67–92). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (2005b). The psychological effects of early institutional rearing. In P. J. Marshall & N. A. Fox (Eds.), Development of social engagement: Neurobiologial perspectives (pp. 355–391). Cary, NC: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Colvert, E., Kreppner, J., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Groothues, C., et al. (2007). Early adolescent outcomes for institutionally-deprived and non-deprived adoptees. I: Disinhibited attachment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(1), 17–30. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01688.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Kreppner, J. M., & O’Connor, T. G. (2001). Specificity and heterogeneity in children’s responses to profound institutional privation. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 97–103. doi:10.1192/bjp.179.2.97.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Moffit, T., & Caspi, A. (2006). Gene-environment interplay and psychopathology: Multiple varieties but real effects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 226–261.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., O’Connor, T. G., & The English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team. (2004). Are there biological programming effects for psychological development? Findings from a study of Romanian adoptees. Developmental Psychology, 40(1), 81-94. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.40.1.81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Kreppner, J., Kumsta, R., et al. (2010). Deprivation-specific psychological patterns: Effects of institutional deprivation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 75(1), 1–250.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schaffer, H. R. (2000). The early experience assumption: Past, present, and future. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24(1), 5–14. doi:10.1080/016502500383412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shonkoff, J. P., Boyce, W. T., & McEwen, B. S. (2009). Neuroscience, molecular biology, and the childhood roots of health disparities: Building a new framework for health promotion and disease prevention. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301(21), 2252–2259.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smyke, A. T., Koga, S. F., Johnson, D. E., Fox, N. A., Marshall, P. J., Nelson, C. A., & The BEIP Core Group. (2007). The caregiving context in institution-reared and family-reared infants and toddlers in Romania. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(2), 210-218. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01694.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smyke, A. T., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., Nelson, C. A., & Guthrie, D. (2010). Placement in foster care enhances quality of attachment among young institutionalized children. Child Development, 81(1), 212–223.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smyke, A. T., Zeanah, C. H., Gleason, M. M., Drury, S. S., Fox, N. A., Nelson, C. A., et al. (2012). A randomized controlled trial comparing foster care and institutional care for children with signs of reactive attachment disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169(5), 508–514. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11050748.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Beckett, C., Kreppner, J., Castle, J., Colvert, E., Stevens, S., et al. (2008). Is sub-nutrition necessary for a poor outcome following early institutional deprivation? Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 50(9), 664–671. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2008.03065.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spitz, R. (1945a). Hospitalism: A follow-up report. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 2, 113–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spitz, R. (1945b). Hospitalism: An inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 1, 53–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A., & Waters, E. (1977). Attachment as an organizational construct. Child Development, 48, 1184–1199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, S., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Kreppner, J., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Colvert, E., et al. (2008). Inattention/overactivity following early severe institutional deprivation: Presentation and associations in early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(3), 385–398. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9185-5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suomi, S. J. (2003). Gene-environment interactions and the neurobiology of social conflict. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1008, 132–139.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tan, T. X. (2006). History of early neglect and middle childhood social competence: An adoption study. Adoption Quarterly, 9(4), 59–72. doi:10.1300/J145v09n4_04.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan, T. X., & Camras, L. A. (2011). Social skills of adopted Chinese girls at home and in school: Parent and teacher ratings. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 1813–1821. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.05.006.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan, T. X., Camras, L. A., Deng, H., Zhang, M., & Lu, Z. (2012). Family stress, parenting styles, and behavioral adjustment in preschool-age adopted Chinese girls. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27, 128–136. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.04.002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan, T. X., & Marfo, K. (2006). Parental ratings of behavioral adjustment in two samples of adopted Chinese girls: Age-related versus socio-emotional correlates and predictors. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(1), 14–30. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2005.12.004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan, T. X., Marfo, K., & Dedrick, R. F. (2007). Special needs adoption from China: Exploring child-level indicators, adoptive family characteristics, and correlates of behavioral adjustment. Children and Youth Services Review, 29(10), 1269–1285. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.05.001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan, T. X., Marfo, K., & Dedrick, R. F. (2010). Early developmental and psychosocial risks and longitudinal behavioral adjustment outcomes for preschool-age girls adopted from China. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 306–314. doi:10.1016/j.appdev/2010.04.002.

    Google Scholar 

  • The St. Petersburg-USA Orphanage Research Team. (2008). The effects of early social-emotional and relationship experience on the development of young orphanage children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 291, 73(3).

  • Tizard, B., & Hodges, J. (1978). The effect of early institutional rearing on the development of eight year old children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19(2), 99–118.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tizard, B., & Rees, J. (1975). The effect of early institutional rearing on the behaviour problems and affectional relationships of four-year-old children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 16(1), 61–73.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van den Dries, L., Juffer, F., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2009). Fostering security? A meta-analysis of attachment in adopted children. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(3), 410–421. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.09.008.

    Google Scholar 

  • van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Juffer, F. (2007). Plasticity of growth in height, weight and head circumference: Meta-analytic evidence for massive catch-up after international adoption. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 28(4), 334–343. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e31811320aa.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2006). The Emanuel Miller Memorial Lecture 2006: Adoption as intervention. Meta-analytic evidence for massive catch-up and plasticity in physical, socio-emotional, and cognitive development. Journal of Child Psychology and. Psychiatry, 47(12), 1228–1245.

    Google Scholar 

  • van IJzendoorn, M. H., Palacios, J., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Gunnar, M. R., Vorria, P., McCall, R. B., et al. (2011). I. Children in institutional care: Delayed development and resilience. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76(4), 8–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhulst, F. C., Althaus, M., & Versluis-Den Bieman, H. J. M. (1990). Problem behavior in international adoptees: II. Age at placement. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(1), 104–111.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verhulst, F. C., Althaus, M., & Versluis-Den Bieman, H. J. M. (1992). Damaging backgrounds: Later adjustment of international adoptees. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(3), 518–524.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vorria, P., Rutter, M., Pickles, A., Wolkind, S., & Hobsbaum, A. (1998a). A comparative study of Greek children in long-term residential group care and in two-parent families: I. Social, emotional, and behavioural differences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39(2), 225–236.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vorria, P., Rutter, M., Pickles, A., Wolkind, S., & Hobsbaum, A. (1998b). A comparative study of Greek children in long-term residential group care and in two-parent families: II. Possible mediating mechanisms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39(2), 237–245.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolkind, S. N. (1974). The components of “affectionless psychopathy” in institutionalized children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 15, 215–220.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeanah, C. H., Gunnar, M. R., McCall, R. B., Kreppner, J., & Fox, N. A. (2011). VI. Sensitive periods. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76(4), 147–162.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by NICHD grants HD39017 and HD050212 to Robert B. McCall and Christina J. Groark. The content is solely the responsibility of the author and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NICHD or NIH. The author is grateful to Robert B. McCall, Celia Brownell, Susan B. Campbell, Daniel S. Shaw, and Junlei Li for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Office of Child Development, University of Pittsburgh, 400 N. Lexington Ave., Pittsburgh, PA, 15208, USA

    Megan M. Julian

Authors
  1. Megan M. Julian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Megan M. Julian.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Julian, M.M. Age at Adoption from Institutional Care as a Window into the Lasting Effects of Early Experiences. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 16, 101–145 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-013-0130-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-013-0130-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation