Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Resilient Adolescent Adjustment Among Girls: Buffers of Childhood Peer Rejection and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Examined a risk-resilience model of peer rejection and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a 5-year longitudinal study of 209 ethnically and socioeconomically diverse girls aged 6–13 at baseline and 11–18 at follow-up. Risk factors were childhood ADHD diagnosis and peer rejection; hypothesized protective factors were childhood measures of self-perceived scholastic competence, engagement in goal-directed play when alone, and popularity with adults. Adolescent criterion measures were multi-informant composites of externalizing and internalizing behavior plus indicators of academic achievement, eating pathology, and substance use. ADHD and peer rejection predicted risk for all criterion measures except for substance use, which was predicted by ADHD only. ADHD and peer rejection predicted lower adolescent academic achievement controlling for childhood achievement, but they did not predict adolescent externalizing and internalizing behavior after controlling for baseline levels of these constructs. Regarding buffers, self-perceived scholastic competence in childhood (with control of academic achievement) predicted resilient adolescent functioning. Contrary to hypothesis, goal-directed play in childhood was associated with poor adolescent outcomes. Buffers were not found to have differential effectiveness among girls with ADHD relative to comparison girls.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Reviewers suggested that the test of goal-directed play as a protective factor should be operationalized by first controlling for the total amount of solitary time, and then placing the proportion of goal-directed play on the next step in the regression. Analyses were conducted with this method and the effects for goal-directed play remained unchanged. Thus, we have retained the current conception of goal-directed play, to maintain consistency with Mikami and Hinshaw (2003).

  2. Because scores of problem behavior are z-scored composites, they do not provide a sense of absolute severity. Yet girls with ADHD fell in the clinically significant range on problem behaviors. Mother and Teacher average T-scores for aggressive and delinquent subscales on the CBCL/TRF ranged from 62–67 for the ADHD sample, relative to 52–53 for the comparison sample. Mother and Teacher average T-scores for anxious/depressed subscales on the CBCL/TRF ranged from 61–62 for the ADHD sample, relative to 53 for the comparison sample.

  3. When ADHD was placed on step 1 and peer rejection on step 2 in these analyses, instead of the reverse, results were unchanged for 6 of 8 outcomes (with and without statistical control of baseline adjustment). For substance abuse, ADHD diagnosis became marginally significant and peer rejection was negatively associated with substance use; as the correlation between rejection and substance use is close to zero, this negative relationship suggests that rejection has a suppressor effect when combined with ADHD. For academic achievement, after controlling for baseline achievement, ADHD diagnosis remained significant but the peer rejection effect was reduced.

  4. We conducted parallel analyses in which ethnicity, SES, age, and IQ were each considered as predictors before peer rejection and ADHD. We note that girls with ADHD and comparison girls were not significantly different at baseline regarding ethnicity, SES, and age; however, we examined their effects because of the wide range on these variables. We found no main effects for age or for ethnicity, and few effects for SES with two exceptions—SES was negatively correlated with adolescent externalizing symptoms and positively correlated with academic achievement, but only without control of baseline levels of these constructs. The pattern of results was largely unchanged with the addition of these variables. Regarding IQ, not surprisingly, girls with ADHD displayed significantly lower IQs than did comparison girls (see Hinshaw, 2002). When included as a predictor prior to peer rejection and ADHD, IQ was significantly and negatively correlated with all of the measures of adolescent problem behaviors and positively correlated with adolescent academic achievement. However, the pattern of results for the risk factors and buffers remained largely unchanged. Notably, even after controlling for the effects of IQ and baseline academic achievement the factors of peer rejection and ADHD remained significant in predicting adolescent achievement, and perceived scholastic competence remained marginally significant. Finally, we conducted parallel analyses in which ADHD subgroup (Combined Type, Inattentive Type, comparison) was substituted for ADHD diagnostic status (ADHD versus comparison). The pattern of results was unchanged, so we report results for ADHD vs. comparison diagnostic status herein.

  5. The potential buffering effects of all other Harter subscales were tested, and these results pertain uniquely to self-perceived scholastic competence.

References

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991a). Manual for child behavior checklist and revised child behavior profile. Burlington, VT: University Associates in Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991b). Manual for teacher’s report form and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University Associates in Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., & Howell, C. T. (1987). Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 213–232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, J. P., Porter, M. R., McFarland, F. C., Marsh, P., & McElhaney, K. B. (2005). The two faces of adolescent’ success with peers: Adolescent popularity, social adaptation, and deviant behavior. Child Development, 76, 747–760.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.—Text Revision). Washington, DC: Author.

  • Arnold, L. E. (1996). Sex differences in ADHD: Conference summary. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 555–569.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2002). ADHD: Long-term course, adult outcome, and comorbid disorders. In P. S. Jensen & J. R. Cooper (Eds.), Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: State of the science and best practices (pp. 4-1–4-12). Kingston, NJ: Civic Research Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Wilens, T. E., Mick, E., & Faraone, S. V. (1998). Does attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder impact the developmental course of drug and alcohol abuse and dependence? Biological Psychiatry, 44, 269–273.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blachman, D. R., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2002). Patterns of friendship among girls with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 625–640.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buhs, E. S., & Ladd, G. W. (2001). Peer rejection as antecedent of young children’s school adjustment: An examination of mediating processes. Developmental Psychology, 37, 550–560.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., Shaw, D. S., & Gilliom, M. (2000). Early externalizing behavior problems: Toddlers and preschoolers at risk for later maladjustment. Development & Psychopathology, 12, 467–488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, C. L., Tamm, L., & Gaub, M. (1997). Gender differences in children with ADHD, ODD,and co-occurring ADHD/ODD identified in a school population. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1706–1714.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chassin, L., Ritter, J., Trim, R. S., & King, K. M. (2003). Adolescent substance use disorders. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 199–232). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, W. J., Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., & Tsuang, M. T. (1994). Diagnostic accuracy of the Child Behavior Checklist scales for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A receiver-operating characteristic analysis. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 62, 1017–1025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analyses for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coie, J. D. (1990). Toward a theory of peer rejection. In S. R. Asher & J. D. Coie (Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood (pp. 365–401). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coie, J. D., & Dodge, K. A. (1983). Continuities and changes in children’s social status: A five-year longitudinal study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 29, 261–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., & Coppotelli, H. (1982). Dimensions and types of social status: A cross-age perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 557–570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J. (1990). The peer context of troublesome child and adolescent behavior. In P. E. Leone (Ed.), Understanding troubled and troubling youth: Multiple perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Ageton, S. (1985). Explaining delinquency and drug use. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahy, T., & Eisler, I. (1993). Impulsivity and Eating Disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 193–197.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faul, F., & Erdfelder, E. (1992). GPOWER: A priori, post-hoc, and compromise power analyses for MS-DOS (computer program). Bonn, FRG: Bonn University, Department of Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garner, D. M. (1991). Eating disorder inventory (2nd ed.; EDI-2). Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources.

  • Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M. P., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1982). The Eating Attitudes Test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine, 12, 871–878.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greene, R. W., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Sienna, M., & Garcia-Jetton, J. (1997). Adolescent outcome of boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and social disability: Results from a 4-year longitudinal follow-up study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 758–767.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guay, F., Marsh, H. W., & Boivin, M. (2003). Academic self-concept and academic achievement: Developmental perspectives on their causal ordering. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 124–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2001). Early teacher-child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through the eighth grade. Child Development, 72, 625–638.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the self-perception profile for children. Unpublished manuscript, University of Denver.

  • Harter, S., & Whitesell, N. R. (1996). Multiple pathways to self-reported depression and psychological adjustment among adolescents. Development & Psychopathology, 8, 761–777.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P. (1992). Academic underachievment, attention deficits, and aggression: Comorbidity and implications for intervention. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 60, 893–903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P. (2002). Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: I. Background characteristics, comorbidity, cognitive and social functioning, and parenting practices. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 1086–1098.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P., & Blachman, D. R. (2005). Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder in girls. In D. Bell-Dolan, S. Foster, & E. J. Mash (Eds.), Behavioral and emotional problems in girls. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P., Owens, E. B., Sami, N., & Fargeon, S. (2006). Prospective follow-up of girls with Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder into adolescence: Evidence for continuing cross-domain impairment. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 74, 489–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P., & Simmel, C. (1994). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. In M. Hersen, R. T. Ammerman, & L. A. Sisson (Eds.), Handbook of aggressive and destructive behavior in psychiatric patients. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmbeck, G. N. (2002). Post-hoc probing of significant moderational and mediational effects in studies of pediatric populations. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 27, 87–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoza, B., Gerdes, A. C., Mrug, S., Hinshaw, S. P., Bukowski, W. M., Gold, J. A., et al. (2005). Peer-assessed outcomes in the Multimodal Treatment Study of children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 74–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoza, B., Mrug, S., Gerdes, A. C., Bukowski, W. M., Kraemer, H. C., Wigal, T., et al. (2005). What aspects of peer relationships are impaired in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 73, 411–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hymel, S., Vaillancourt, T., McDougall, P., & Renshaw, P. D. (2002). Peer acceptance and rejection in childhood. In P. K. Smith & C. H. Hart (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of childhood social development. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1992). Children’s depression inventory (CDI) manual. Toronto, CA: Multi-Health Systems Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kupersmidt, J. B., Coie, J. D., & Dodge, K. A. (1990). The role of poor peer relationships in the development of disorder. In S. R. Asher & J. D. Coie (Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood (pp. 274–305). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leung, K., & Lau, S. (1989). Effects of self-concept and perceived disapproval of delinquent behavior in school children. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 18, 345–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magee, W. J., Eaton, W. W., Wittchern, H., McGonagle, K. A., & Kessler, R. C. (1996). Agoraphobia, simple phobia, and social phobia in the national comorbidity survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 159–168.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mannuzza, S., & Klein, R. G. (1999). Adolescent and adult outcomes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In H. C. Quay & A. E. Hogan (Eds.), Handbook of disruptive behavior disorders (pp. 279–294). New York: Kluwer Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., Bessler, A., Malloy, P., & Hynes, M. (1997). Educational and occupational outcome of hyperactive boys grown up. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1222–1227.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marshal, M. P., Molina, B. S. G., & Pelham, W. E. (2003). Childhood ADHD and adolescent substance use: An examination of deviant peer group affiliation as a risk factor. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 17, 293–302.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, G. H., & Judd, C. M. (1993). Statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 376–390.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mikami, A. Y., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2003). Buffers of peer rejection among girls with and without ADHD: The role of popularity with adults and goal-directed solitary play. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 381–397.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller-Johnson, S., Coie, J. D., Maumary-Gremaud, A., Bierman, K. L., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2002). Peer rejection and aggression and early starter models of conduct disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 217–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Molina, B. S. G. (1995). Adolescent substance abuse interview. Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center.

  • Molina, B. S. G., & Pelham, W. E. (2003). Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 497–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression in adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424–443.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick, T. H., Weist, M. D., Borden, M. C., & Greene, R. W. (1992). Sociometric status and academic, behavioral, and psychological adjustment: A five-year longitudinal study. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 60, 80–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pajer, K. A. (1998). What happens to “bad” girls? A review of the adult outcomes of antisocial adolescent girls. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 862–870.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, J. G., & Asher, S. R. (1987). Peer relations and later personal adjustment: Are low-accepted children at risk? Psychological Bulletin, 102, 357–389.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, J. G., Rubin, K. H., Price, J. M., & DeRosier, M. E. (1995). Peer relationships, child development, and adjustment: A developmental psychopathology perspective. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Risk, disorder, and adaptation (Vol. 2, pp. 96–161.). New York: Wiley.

  • Pisecco, S., Wristers, K., Swank, P., Silva, P. A., & Baker, D. B. (2001). The effect of academic self-concept on ADHD and antisocial behaviors in early adolescence. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 450–461.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qualter, P., & Munn, P. (2002). The separateness of social and emotional loneliness in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 233–244.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rierdan, J., Koff, E., & Stubbs, M. L. (1989). A longitudinal analysis of body image as a predictor of the onset and persistence of adolescent girls’ depression. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 454–466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L. N., & Price, R. K. (1991). Adult disorders predicted by childhood conduct problems: Results from the NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area Project. Psychiatry, 54, 116–132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, S., & Cohen, L. J. (1986). Approach, avoidance, and coping with stress. American Psychologist, 41, 813–819.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, K. H., & Coplan, R. J. (1998). Social and nonsocial play in childhood: An individual difference perspective. In O. N. Saracho & B. Spodek (Eds.), Multiple perspectives on play in early childhood education (pp. 144–170). Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version IV: Description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stice, E., Spangler, D., & Agras, W. S. (2001). Exposure to media-portrayed thin-ideal images adversely affects vulnerable girls: A longitudinal experiment. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20, 270–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stormshak, E. A., Bierman, K. L., Bruschi, C., Dodge, K. A., Coie, J. D., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (1999). The relation between behavior problems and peer preference in different classroom contexts. Child Development, 70, 169–182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, J. M. (1992). Assessment and treatment of ADD students. Irvine, CA: K.C. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweeting, H., & West, P. (2002). Gender differences in weight related concerns in early to late adolescence. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 56, 701–702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E. (2000). The development of aggressive behaviour during childhood: What have we learned in the past century? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 129–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1992). Manual for the wechsler individual achievement test. New York: Psychological Corporation/Harcourt Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whalen, C. K., & Henker, B. (1992). The social profile of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Five fundamental facets. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 1, 395–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M. A., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Notaro, P. C. (2002). Natural mentors and adolescent resiliency: A study with urban youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 221–243.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Work on this research was supported by National Institute of Mental Health Grants R01 MH45064 and F31MH12838, and the Sheldon J. Korchin Prize at the University of California, Berkeley. We express our great appreciation to the girls and their families who participated in this project, to Elizabeth Owens and the many individuals who assisted with data collection and data management, and to Ann Kring and Carolyn Hofstetter for their consultation on this study. This article was based on a dissertation completed by the first author at the University of California, Berkeley.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, 102 Gilmer Hall, P.O. Box 400400, Charlottesville, VA, 22904-4400, USA

    Amori Yee Mikami

  2. University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA

    Stephen P. Hinshaw

Authors
  1. Amori Yee Mikami
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stephen P. Hinshaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Amori Yee Mikami.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Mikami, A.Y., Hinshaw, S.P. Resilient Adolescent Adjustment Among Girls: Buffers of Childhood Peer Rejection and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol 34, 823–837 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9062-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9062-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation