Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Beyond False Beliefs: The Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Perceptions of Children’s Theory of Mind Measure—Experimental Version (PCToMM-E)

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The Perceptions of Children’s Theory of Mind Measure (Experimental version; PCToMM-E) is an informant measure designed to tap children’s theory of mind competence. Study one evaluated the measure when completed by primary caregivers of children with autism spectrum disorder. Scores demonstrated high test–retest reliability and correlated with verbal mental age and ToM task battery performance. No ceiling effects were observed. In addition, caregivers accurately predicted their children’s ToM task battery performance. In study two the scores of primary caregivers of typically developing children demonstrated high test–retest reliability and distinguished children on the basis of age and developmental status. Ceiling effects were not evident until late childhood. The utility of the PCToMM-E and directions for future research are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Astington, J. W. (1988). Promises: Words or deeds? First Language, 8, 259–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Astington, J. W. (1999). The language of intention: Three ways of doing it. In P. D. Zelazo, J. W. Astington, & D. R. Olson (Eds.), Developing theories of intention: Social understanding and self-control (pp. 295–315). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Astington, J. W. (2001). The future of theory-of-mind research: Understanding motivational states, the role of language, and real-world consequences. Child Development, 72, 685–687.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Astington, J. W. (2005). Introduction: Why language matters. In J. W. Astington & J. A. Baird (Eds.), Why language matters for theory of mind (pp. 3–25). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Astington, J. W., & Jenkins, J. M. (1995). Theory of mind development and social understanding. Cognition & Emotion, 9, 151–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (1989a). Are autistic children “behaviorists”? An examination of their mental-physical and appearance–reality distinctions. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 19, 579–600.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (1989b). The autistic child’s theory of mind: A case of specific developmental delay. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 30, 285–298.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (1991). Do people with Autism understand what causes emotion? Child Development, 62, 385–395.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (1992). Out of sight or out of mind? Another look at deception in autism. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 33, 1141–1155.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). Hey! It was just a joke! Understanding propositions and propositional attitudes by normally developing children and children with autism. Israel Journal of Psychiatry, 34, 174–178.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (2000). Theory of mind in autism: A fifteen year review. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspectives from developmental neuroscience (pp. 3–20). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (2003). The essential difference: The truth about the male and female mind. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beatson, J. E., & Prelock, P. A. (2002). The Vermont Rural Autism Project: Sharing experiences, shifting attitudes. Focus on Autism & Other Developmental Disabilities, 17(1), 48–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Begeer, S., Rieffe, C., Meerum Terwogt, M., & Stockmann, L. (2003). Theory of mind-based action in children from the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 33, 479–487.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craig, J. (1997). An investigation of imagination and creativity in autism. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crais, E. R. (1993). Families and professionals as collaborators in assessment. Topics in Language Disorders 14, 29–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1997). Examiner’s manual for the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fenson, L., Dale, P., Reznick, S., Thal, D., Bates, E., Hartung, J., Penthick, S., & Reilly, J. (1991). Technical manual for the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories. San Diego, CA: San Diego State University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flavell, J. H., Green, E. R., & Flavell, E. R. (1986). Development of knowledge about the appearance–reality distinction. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 5 (1).

  • Gradel, K., Thompson, M., & Sheehan, R. (1981). Parental and professional agreement in early childhood assessment. Topics in Early Childhood and Special Education, 1, 31–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadwin, J., Baron-Cohen, S., Howlin, P., & Hill. K. (1996). Can we teach children with autism to understand emotions, belief, or pretence? Development & Psychopathology, 8, 345–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Happe, F. (1994). An advanced test of theory of mind: Understanding the story characters thoughts and feelings by able autistic mentally handicapped and normal children and adults. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 24, 129–154.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Happe, F. (1995). The role of age and verbal ability in the theory of mind task performance of subjects with autism. Child Development, 66, 843–855.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., Adlam, A., Happe, F., Jackson, J., Taylor, A., & Caspi, A. (2000). Good test–retest reliability for standard and advanced false-belief tasks across a wide range of abilities. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 41, 483–490.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchins, T. L., Prelock, P., & Chase, W. (in review). Test–retest reliability of ToM tasks for children with ASD. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities..

  • Kazak, S., Collis, G. M., & Lewis, V. (1997). Can young people with Autism refer to knowledgestates? Evidence from their understanding of “know” and “guess”. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 38, 1001–1009.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klin, A. (2000). Attributing social meaning to ambiguous visual stimuli in higher-functioning autism and Asperger Syndrome: The social attribution task. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 7, 831–846.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lalonde, C. E., & Chandler, M. J. (1995). False belief understanding goes to school: On the social-emotional consequences of coming early or late to a first theory of mind. Cognition & Emotion, 9, 167–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leslie, A. M. (1987). Pretense and representation: The origins of “theory of mind”. Psychological Review, 94, 412–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1988). Autistic children’s understanding of seeing, knowing and believing. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 6, 315–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leekam, S., & Perner, J. (1991). Does the autistic child have a metarepresentational deficit? Cognition, 40, 203–218.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. C., & Risi, S. (1999). Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-WPS Edition. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, L., Klin, A., Tercyak, K. P., Cicchetti, D. V., & Cohen, D. J. (1996). Test–retest reliability for false-belief tasks. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 313–319.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCauley, R. (2001). Assessment of language disorders in children. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, S. A. (2000). Children’s understanding of preexisting differences in knowledge and belief. Developmental Review, 20, 227–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, C. A. (2006). Developmental relationships between language and theory of mind. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 15, 142–154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, P., Saltmarsh, R., & Russell, H. (1997). Overly literal interpretations of speech in autism: Understanding that messages arise from minds. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines, 38, 658–691.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., & Miller, J. N. (1995). Teaching theory of mind: A new approach to social skills training for individuals with autism. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 25, 415–433.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perner, J., Frith, U., Leslie, A. M., & Leekam, S. (1989). Exploration of the autistic child’s theory of mind: Knowledge, belief, and communication. Child Development, 60, 689–700.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perner, J., Sprung, M., & Steinkogler, B. (2004). Counterfactual conditionals and false belief: A developmental dissociation. Cognitive Development, 19, 179–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prelock, P. A. (2006). Autism spectrum disorders: Issues in assessment & intervention. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prelock, P. A., Beatson, J., Bitner, B., Broder, C., & Ducker, A. (2003). Interdisciplinary assessment for young children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 34, 194–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prelock, P. A., Beatson, J., Contompasis, S., & Bishop, K. KI. (1999). A model for family-centered interdisciplinary practice in the community. Topics in Language Disorders, 19, 36–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prior, M., Dahlstrom, B., & Squires, T. L. (1990). Autistic children’s knowledge of thinking and feeling in other people. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 31, 587–601.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts,-DeGenarro, M. (1996). An interdisciplinary training model in the field of early intervention. Social Work in Education, 18, 20–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • St. James, P. J., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (1994). An observational study of humor in autism and Down syndrome. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 24, 603–617.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Searle, J. R. (1969). Speech acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shelton, T. L., & Stepanek, J. S. (1994, September). Family-centered care for children needing specialized health and developmental services (3rd ed.). Bethesda, MD: Associations for the Car of Children’s Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silliman, E. R., Diehl, S. F., Hnath-Chisolm, T., Bouchard Zenko, C., & Friedman, S. A. (2003). A new look at performance on theory-of-mind tasks by adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 34, 236–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slaughter, V., & Repacholi, B. (2003). Introduction: Individual differences in theory of mind. In B. Repacholi & V. Slaughter (Eds.), Individual differences in theory of mind (pp. 1–12). New York: Taylor & Francis Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sodian, B., & Frith, U. (1992). Deception and sabotage in autistic, retarded, and normal children. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 33, 591–606.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sodian, B., Taylor, C., Harris, P., & Perner, J. (1992). Early deception and the child’s theory of mind: False trails and genuine markers. Child Development, 62, 468–483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H. (1992). Autistic children’s talk about psychological states: Deficits in the early acquisition of a theory of mind. Child Development, 63, 161–172.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H. (1993). What language reveals about the understanding of minds in children with autism. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. H. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspectives from autism (pp. 138–153). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H. (1999). The challenge of studying language development in Children with autism. In L. Menn & N. Bernstein Ratner (Eds.), Methods for studying language production (pp. 313–331). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H. (2001). A reexamination of the theory of mind hypothesis of Autism. In J. A. Burack, T. Charman., N. Yirmiya., & P. R. Zelazo (Eds.), The development of autism: Perspectives from theory and research (pp. 173–193). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, A. C., Nixon, C. L., Wilson, A., & Capage, L. (1999). Social interaction skills and theory of mind in young children. Developmental Psychology, 35, 386–391.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wellman, H. M., & Bartsch, K. (1988). Young children’s reasoning about beliefs. Cognition, 30, 239–277.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wellman, H. M., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of theory-of-mind development: The truth about false beliefs. Child Development, 72, 655–684.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. T., & Wang, J. (1997). Technical references to the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (3rd Ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and the constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103–128.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yirmiya, N., Erel, O., Shaked, M., & Solomonica-Levi, D. (1998). Meta-analyses comparing theory of mind abilities of individuals with autism, individuals with mental retardation, and normally developing individuals. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 283–307.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Portions of this paper were presented at the annual conference of the American Speech, Language, and Hearing Association (November, 2006, Miami, FL). Data from study 2 were originally collected and analyzed by the second author as part of an undergraduate honor’s thesis.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Communication Sciences, University of Vermont, 489 Main Street, 406 Pomeroy Hall, Burlington, VT, 05445, USA

    Tiffany L. Hutchins, Laura A. Bonazinga, Patricia A. Prelock & Rebecca S. Taylor

Authors
  1. Tiffany L. Hutchins
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Laura A. Bonazinga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Patricia A. Prelock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Rebecca S. Taylor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tiffany L. Hutchins.

Appendices

Appendix A: Instructions.

The Perception of Children’s Theory of Mind Measure (PCToMM-E)

The purpose of this measure is to learn about caregivers’ ideas regarding children’s thoughts and feelings. Please read each statement carefully and indicate the degree to which you believe each statement is true for your child. Indicate your response by making a vertical hash mark at the appropriate point along the continuum. You may feel that you don’t know for sure whether a statement is true or not. When you feel this way, reflect upon your experiences with your child and try to decide, given everything you know about this child, how certain you are that the statement is true or not true. There are no right or wrong answers and no answers are valued over any other answers. Please remember to respond as honestly and thoughtfully as possible. Your answers are completely confidential.

EXAMPLE: Read the following statement and indicate your response by making a vertical hash mark along the appropriate point on the continuum. If you don’t know the answer to the question, make a slash mark somewhere underneath “Don’t Know.” If you have more definite feelings that the statement is true or not true, make a hash mark along the point in the continuum that reflects those feelings.

Example: My child can communicate to me that s/he wants something.

figure a

Appendix B: Sample items from the PCToMM-E

  1. 1.

    My child understands that when someone says they are afraid of the dark, they will not go into a dark room.

  2. 2.

    My child understands that to know what is in an unmarked box, you have to see or hear about what is in that box.

  3. 3.

    My child understands that when people get what they want, they will be happy.

  4. 4.

    My child can pretend that one object is a different object (for example, pretending a banana is a telephone).

  5. 5.

    My child empathizes with others.

  6. 6.

    My child understands whether someone hurts someone else on purpose or by accident.

  7. 7.

    My child understands that when people frown, they feel differently then when they smile.

  8. 8.

    My child understands that, when I show fear, the situation is unsafe or dangerous.

  9. 9.

    My child uses the word ‘know’ as in “I know it.”

  10. 10.

    My child understands that if two people look at the same object from a different standing point, they will see the object in different ways.

  11. 11.

    My child understands that when a person promises something, it means the person will do it.

  12. 12.

    My child understands that people often have thoughts about other peoples’ thoughts.

  13. 13.

    If I put my keys on the table, left the room, and my child moved the keys from the table to a drawer, my child would understand that when I returned, I would first look for my keys where I left them.

  14. 14.

    My child understands that peoples’ personalities basically don’t change from day to day.

  15. 15.

    My child understands that people can be wrong in what they think other people want.

  16. 16.

    My child understands that people might not always say what they are thinking because they don’t want to hurt others’ feelings.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hutchins, T.L., Bonazinga, L.A., Prelock, P.A. et al. Beyond False Beliefs: The Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Perceptions of Children’s Theory of Mind Measure—Experimental Version (PCToMM-E). J Autism Dev Disord 38, 143–155 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0377-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0377-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation