Abstract
Turkish immigrants represent the largest ethnic minority in Germany however information about the factors associated with their children’s mental health is scarce. This study examined family and individual factors associated with the strengths and difficulties of Turkish immigrant children and adolescents in comparison with their German peers. Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaires (SDQs) were rated by participants’ mothers (N = 480) and teachers (n = 164). Compared with German mothers (n = 121), Turkish immigrant mothers (n = 359) rated their children’s total difficulties, their emotional symptoms and peer problems as well as their prosocial behavior as significantly higher. In contrast, there were no differences in the participating teachers’ ratings of Turkish immigrant compared with German children’s strengths and difficulties. Regression analyses revealed that child gender and family adversity were cross-culturally associated with SDQ scores whereas inconsistent parenting only affected German children’s externalizing behavior problems. Factors associated with Turkish immigrant and German children’s mental health problems are thus both cross-culturally comparable and culturally specific. More information is needed in order to identify individuals at highest risk to develop certain types of behavior problems and provide specific prevention strategies.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M., Becker, A., Döpfner, M., Heiervang, E., Roessner, V., Steinhausen, H. C., et al. (2008). Multicultural assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology with ASEBA and SDQ instruments: Research findings, applications, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(3), 251–275.
Atzaba-Poria, N., Pike, A., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2004). Do risk factors for problem behaviour act in a cumulative manner? An examination of ethnic minority and majority children through an ecological perspective. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(4), 707–718.
Belfer, M. L. (2008). Child and adolescent mental disorders: The magnitude of the problem across the globe. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(3), 226–236.
Bengi-Arslan, L., Verhulst, F. C., vanderEnde, J., & Erol, N. (1997). Understanding childhood (problem) behaviors from a cultural perspective: Comparison of problem behaviors and competencies in Turkish immigrant, Turkish and Dutch children. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 32(8), 477–484.
Bundesregierung, (2012). Migrationsbericht 2010. Berlin: Deutsches Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge.
Costello, E. J., Egger, H., & Angold, A. (2005). 10-Year research update review: The epidemiology of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders: I. Methods and public health burden. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(10), 972–986.
Crystal, D. S., Ostrander, R., Chen, R. S., & August, G. J. (2001). Multimethod assessment of psychopathology among DSM-IV subtypes of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Self-, parent, and teacher reports. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(3), 189–205.
De Los Reyes, A., & Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Informant discrepancies in the assessment of childhood psychopathology: A critical review, theoretical framework, and recommendations for further study. Psychological Bulletin, 131(4), 483–509.
Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1998). Multiple risk factors in the development of externalizing behavior problems: Group and individual differences. Development and Psychopathology, 10(3), 469–493.
Döpfner, M., Kinnen, C., Weber, K. N., & Pluck, J. (2011). Behavioral problems of primary school-students: Results from the german teacher’s report form (TRF). Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 43(2), 99–107.
Downey, G., & Coyne, J. C. (1990). Children of depressed parents: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 108(1), 50–76.
Dwairy, M., & Achoui, M. (2010). Parental control: A second cross-cultural research on parenting and psychological adjustment of children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(1), 16–22.
Ellis, B., & Nigg, J. (2009). Parenting practices and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: New findings suggest partial specificity of effects. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(2), 146–154.
Erol, N., Simsek, Z., Oner, O., & Munir, K. (2005). Effects of internal displacement and resettlement on the mental health of Turkish children and adolescents. European Psychiatry, 20(2), 152–157.
Gadermann, A. M., Guhn, M., & Zumbo, B. D. (2012). Estimating ordinal reliability for likert-type and ordinal item response data: A conceptual, empirical, and practical guide. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 17(3), 1–13.
Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 581–586.
Goodman, R. (2001). Psychometric properties of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1337–1345.
Goodman, A., Joyce, R., & Smith, J. P. (2011). The long shadow cast by childhood physical and mental problems on adult life. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(15), 6032–6037.
Hipwell, A. E., Murray, L., Ducournau, P., & Stein, A. (2005). The effects of maternal depression and parental conflict on children’s peer play. Child: Care, Health and Development, 31(1), 11–23.
Hölling, H., Kurth, B.-M., Rothenberger, A., Becker, A., & Schlack, R. (2008). Assessing psychopathological problems of children and adolescents from 3 to 17 years in a nationwide representative sample: Results of the German health interview and examination survey for children and adolescents (KiGGS). European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 34–41.
Jäkel, J., & Leyendecker, B. (2008). Daily hassles of Turkish migrant and German non-migrant mothers with pre-school children. Zeitschrift für Gesundheitspsychologie, 1, 12–21.
Jäkel, J., & Leyendecker, B. (2009). Parenting behaviour of Turkish migrant and German mothers with pre-school children. Psychologie in Erziehung Und Unterricht, 1, 1–15.
Jäkel, J., & Leyendecker, B. (2011). Associations of Turkish immigrant parents’ generation gaps with family factors and child development Paper presented at the 20th Conference of the German Society of Psychology (DGP) Section Developmental Psychology, Erfurt.
Janssen, M. M. M., Verhulst, F. C., Benghi-Arslan, L., Erol, N., Salter, C. J., & Crijnen, A. A. M. (2004). Comparison of self-reported emotional and behavioral problems in Turkish immigrant, Dutch and Turkish adolescents. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39(2), 133–140.
Jenkins, J., Simpson, A., Dunn, J., Rasbash, J., & O’Connor, T. G. (2005). Mutual influence of marital conflict and children’s behavior problems: Shared and nonshared family risks. Child Development, 76(1), 24–39.
Kanner, A. D., Coyne, J. C., Schaefer, C., & Lazarus, R. S. (1981). Comparison of two modes of stress measurement: Daily hassles and uplifts versus major life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 1–39.
Kim, S. Y., & Ge, X. J. (2000). Parenting practices and adolescent depressive symptoms in Chinese American families. Journal of Family Psychology, 14(3), 420–435.
Koot, H. M. (1997). Handleiding bij de vragenlijst voor gezinsproblemen (Manual accompanying the Dutch family problems questionnaire). Rotterdam: Sophia Kinderziekenhuis/Erasmus Universiteit, Afdeling Kinder- en Jeugdpsychiatrie.
Krueger, R. F., & Markon, K. E. (2011). A dimensional-spectrum model of psychopathology: Progress and opportunities. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(1), 10–11.
Nielsen, S. S., & Krasnik, A. (2010). Poorer self-perceived health among migrants and ethnic minorities versus the majority population in Europe: A systematic review. International Journal of Public Health, 55(5), 357–371.
Oppedal, B., & Roysamb, E. (2004). Mental health, life stress and social support among young Norwegian adolescents with immigrant and host national background. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 45(2), 131–144.
Oppedal, B., Roysamb, E., & Heyerdahl, S. (2005). Ethnic group, acculturation, and psychiatric problems in young immigrants. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(6), 646–660.
Patel, V., Flisher, A. J., Hetrick, S., & McGorry, P. (2007). Mental health of young people: A global public-health challenge. Lancet, 369, 1302–1313.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.
Ravens-Sieberer, U., Erhart, M., Gosch, A., & Wille, N. (2008). Mental health of children and adolescents in 12 European countries: Results from the European KIDSCREEN Study. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 15(3), 154–163.
Reijneveld, S. A. (2010). Ethnic differences in health and use of health care: The questions to be answered. International Journal of Public Health, 55(5), 353–355.
Richter, J., Sagatun, A., Heyerdahl, S., Oppedal, B., & Roysamb, E. (2011). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ): Self-report. An analysis of its structure in a multiethnic urban adolescent sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(9), 1002–1011.
Rothenberger, A., Becker, A., Erhart, M., Wille, N., & Ravens-Sieberer, U. (2008). Psychometric properties of the parent strengths and difficulties questionnaire in the general population of German children and adolescents: Results of the BELLA study. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 99–105.
Schölmerich, A., & Leyendecker, B. (2009). Psychologische Diagnostik bei Kindern aus zugewanderten Familien. In D. Irblich & G. Renner (Eds.), Diagnostik in der Klinischen Kinderpsychologie (pp. 430–440). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Schreyer-Mehlhop, I., & Petermann, U. (2011). Maternal parenting behavior and behavior problems in preschool children. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 43(1), 39–48.
Sektnan, M., McClelland, M. M., Acock, A., & Morrison, F. J. (2010). Relations between early family risk, children’s behavioral regulation, and academic achievement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(4), 464–479.
Shelton, K. K., Frick, P. J., & Wootton, J. (1996). Assessment of parenting practices in families of elementary school-age children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25(3), 317–329.
Sowa, H., Crijnen, A. A. M., Bengi-Arslan, L., & Verhulst, F. C. (2000). Factors associated with problem behaviors in Turkish immigrant children in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 35(4), 177–184.
Stevens, G., & Vollebergh, W. A. M. (2008). Mental health in migrant children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(3), 276–294.
Stevens, G., Vollebergh, W. A. M., Pels, T. V. M., & Crijnen, A. A. M. (2005a). Predicting externalizing problems in Moroccan immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40(7), 571–579.
Stevens, G., Vollebergh, W. A. M., Pels, T. V. M., & Crijnen, A. A. M. (2005b). Predicting internalizing problems in Moroccan immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40(12), 1003–1011.
UNESCO. (2006). ISCED 1997. International standard classification of education.
van de Looij-Jansen, P. M., Jansen, W., de Wilde, E. J., Donker, M. C. H., & Verhulst, F. C. (2011). Discrepancies between parent-child reports of internalizing problems among preadolescent children: Relationships with gender, ethnic background, and future internalizing problems. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 31(3), 443–462.
Vollebergh, W. A., ten Have, M., Dekovic, M., Oosterwegel, A., Pels, T., Veenstra, R., et al. (2005). Mental health in immigrant children in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40(6), 489–496.
Woerner, W., Becker, A., & Rothenberger, A. (2004). Normative data and scale properties of the German parent SDQ. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13, 3–10.
Zwirs, B., Burger, H., Buitelaar, J. K., & Schulpen, T. W. J. (2006a). Ethnic differences in parental detection of externalizing disorders. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 15(7), 418–426.
Zwirs, B., Burger, H., Schulpen, T. W. J., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2006b). Different treatment thresholds in non-western children with behavioral problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(4), 476–483.
Zwirs, B., Burger, H., Schulpen, T. W. J., Vermulst, A. A., HiraSing, R. A., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2011). Teacher ratings of children’s behavior problems and functional impairment across gender and ethnicity: Construct equivalence of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42(3), 466–481.
Zwirs, B., Burger, H., Schulpen, T., Wiznitzer, M., Fedder, H., & Buitelaar, J. (2007). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders among children of different ethnic origin. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(4), 556–566.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by NORFACE grant no. 292 to Birgit Leyendecker.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jäkel, J., Leyendecker, B. & Agache, A. Family and Individual Factors Associated with Turkish Immigrant and German Children’s and Adolescents’ Mental Health. J Child Fam Stud 24, 1097–1105 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9918-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9918-3