Abstract
In Behavioral Activation (BA) for depression (Martell, C. R., Addis, M. E., & Jacobson, N. S. (2001)), which has recently received empirical support in a large randomized trial, therapists pay close attention to the function of behavior and the role of aversive controlling stimuli and escape and avoidance behavior in depression. A key variable to measure in studies of BA is when and how clients become more activated over the course of treatment. This study sought to develop an initial set of items for the Behavioral Activation for Depression Scale (BADS), submit these items to an exploratory factor analysis in an initial administration (Study 1, N = 391), and submit the resulting scale to a confirmatory factor analysis in a second administration (Study 2, N = 319). Results indicated four factors (Activation, Avoidance/Rumination, Work/School Impairment, and Social Impairment) with good factor structure, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability. Evidence for construct and predictive validity is presented.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Armento, M. E. A., & Hopko, D. R. (in press). The Environmental Reward Observation Scale (EROS): Development, validity, and reliability. Behavior Therapy.
Barlow, D. H. (2002). Anxiety and its Disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893–897.
Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford.
Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571.
Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. Oxford, England: Wiley.
Borkovec, T. D. (1994). The nature, functions, and origins of worry. In G. C. L. Davey & F. Tallis (Eds.), Worrying: Perspectives on theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 5–33). New York: Wiley.
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–61). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Craske, M. G. (1999). Anxiety disorders: Psychological approaches to theory and treatment. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Dimidjian, S., Hollon, S. D., Dobson, K. S., Schmaling, K. B., Kohlenberg, R. J., Addis, M. E., et al. (2006). Randomized trial of behavioral activation, cognitive therapy, and antidepressant medication in the acute treatment of adults with major depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 658–670.
Dobson, K. S., Hollon, S. D., Dimidjian, S. A., Schmaling, K. B., Kohlenberg, R. J., Rizvi, S., & Dunner, D. L. (2004). Prevention of relapse. In S. D. Hollon (Chair), Behavioral Activation, Cognitive Therapy, and Antidepressant Medication in the treatment of Major Depression. Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, New York, NY.
Ferster, C. B. (1973). A functional analysis of depression. American Psychologist, 28, 857–870.
Gortner, E., Gollan, J. K., Dobson, K. S., & Jacobson, N. S. (1998). Cognitive-behavioral treatment for depression: Relapse prevention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 377–384.
Hayes, S. C., Hayes, L. J., Reese, H. W., & Sarbin, T. R. (Eds.). (1993). Varieties of scientific contextualism. Reno, NV: Context Press.
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: An experiential approach to behavior change. New York: Guilford.
Hayes, S. C., Strosal, K., Willson, K. G., Bissett, R. T., Pistorello, J., Toarmino, D., et al. (2004). Measuring experiential avoidance: A preliminary test of a working model. The Psychological Record, 54, 533–578.
Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford, E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. D. (1996). Emotional avoidance and behavioral disorders: A functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1152–1168.
Herrnstein, R. J. (1970). On the law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 13, 243–266.
Hollon, S. D., & Kendall, P. C. (1980). Cognitive self-statements in depression: Development of an automatic thoughts questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 4, 383–395.
Hopko, D. R., Bell, J. L., Armento, M. E. A., Hunt, M. K., & Lejuez, C. W. (2005). Behavior therapy for depressed cancer patients in primary care. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 42, 236–243.
Hopko, D. R., Lejuez, C. W., & Hopko, S. D. (2004). Behavioral activation as an intervention for co-existent depressive and anxiety symptoms. Clinical Case Studies, 3, 37–48.
Hopko, D. R., Lejuez, C. W., LePage, J. P., Hopko, S. D., & McNeil, D. W. (2003). A brief Behavioral Activation Treatment for Depression: A randomized trial within an inpatient psychiatric hospital. Behavior Modification, 27, 458–469.
Hopko, D. R., Lejuez, C. W., Ruggiero, K. J., & Eifert, G. H. (2003). Contemporary behavioral activation treatments for depression: Procedures, principles, and progess. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 699–717.
Hopko, D. R., Sanchez, L., Hopko, S. D., Dvir, S. & Lejuez, C. W. (2003). Behavioral activation and the prevention of suicidal behaviors in patients with Borderline Personality Disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17, 460–478.
Hoyle, R. H. (1995). Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.
Jacobson, N. S., Dobson, K. S., Truax, P. A., Addis, M. E., Koerner, K., Gollan, J. K., et al. (1996). A component analysis of cognitive-behavioral treatment for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 295–304
Jacobson, N. S., Martell, C. R., & Dimidjian, S. (2001). Behavioral activation treatment for depression: Returning to contextual roots. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 8, 255–270.
Jakupcak, M., Roberts, L., Martell, C., Mulick, P. Michael, S., Reed, R., et al. (2006). A pilot study of Behavior Activation for veterans with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 387–391.
Jöreskog, K. G, & Sörbom, D. (2003). Lisrel, 8.54. Hillsdale, NJ. SSI Scientific Software International.
Just, N., & Alloy, L. B. (1997). The response styles theory of depression: Tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 221–229.
Kaiser, H. F. (1970). A second generation little jiffy. Psychometrika, 35, 401–415.
Kanter, J. W., Callaghan, G. M., Landes, S. J., Busch, A. M., & Brown, K. R. (2004). Behavior analytic conceptualization and treatment of depression: Traditional models and recent advances. The Behavior Analyst Today, 5, 255–274.
Lejuez, C. W., Hopko, D. R., & Hopko, S. D. (2002). The brief Behavioral Activation Treatment for Depression (BATD): A comprehensive patient guide. Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing.
LeJuez, C. W., Hopko, D. R., LePage, J., Hopko, S. D., & McNeil, D. W. (2001). A brief Behavioral Activation Treatment for Depression. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 8, 164–175.
Lewinsohn, P. M. (1974). A behavioral approach to depression. In R. J. Friedman & M. M. Katz (Eds.), The psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 157–178). Washington, DC: Winston-Wiley.
MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1, 130–149.
MacPhillamy, D. J., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (1982). The pleasant events schedule: Studies in reliability, validity, and scale intercorrelation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 363–380.
Martell, C. R., Addis, M. E., & Jacobson, N. S. (2001). Depression in context: Strategies for guided action. New York: Norton.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504–511.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 115–121.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Parker, L. E., & Larson, J. (1994). Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 92–104.
Ottenbreit, N. D., & Dobson, K. S. (2004). Avoidance and depression: The construction of the Cognitive-Behavioral Avoidance Scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 293–313.
Porter, J. F., Spates, C. R., & Smithan, S. (2004). Behavioral Activation group therapy in public mental health settings: A pilot investigation. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 297–301.
Russell, D. W. (2002). In search of underlying dimensions: The use (and abuse) of factor analysis in personality and social psychology bulletin. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1629–1646.
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In A. von Eye & C. C. Clogg (Eds.), Latent variable analysis: Applications for developmental research (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Umberson, D., Wortman, C. B., & Kessler, R. C. (1992). Widowhood and depression: Explaining long-term gender differences in vulnerability. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33, 10–24
Watkins, E., Moulds, M., & Mackintosh, B. (2005). Comparisons between rumination and worry in a non-clinical population. Behavior Research and Therapy, 43, 1577–1585.
West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: Problems and remedies. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 56–75). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Youngren, M. A. & Lewinsohn, P. M. (1980). The functional relationship between depressed and problematic interpersonal behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89, 333–341.
Zeiss, A. M., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Muñoz, R. F. (1979). Nonspecfic improvement effects in depression using interpersonal skills training, pleasant activity schedules, or cognitive training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 427–439.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kanter, J.W., Mulick, P.S., Busch, A.M. et al. The Behavioral Activation for Depression Scale (BADS): Psychometric Properties and Factor Structure. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 29, 191–202 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-006-9038-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-006-9038-5