Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Why are Wise People Happier? An Explanatory Model of Wisdom and Emotional Well-Being in Older Adults

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This research investigated the relation between wisdom and emotional well-being in older adults, with an aim to elucidate pathways of positive development in adulthood. Three-hundred and sixty recently retired individuals completed a series of questionnaires including measures of wisdom, dispositional coping, perceived control, life engagement, and positive and negative affect. Structural equation modeling controlling for social desirability, health, and sociodemographic variables revealed that problem-focused coping, positive reappraisal coping, perceived control and life engagement mediate the positive relation between wisdom and positive affect. In addition, perceived control and life engagement, but not dispositional coping, were found to mediate the negative relation between wisdom and negative affect. The results demonstrate that higher levels of perceived control and life engagement in conjunction with an increased use of problem-focused and positive reappraisal coping account for the enhanced emotional well-being associated with wisdom. Findings are discussed in terms of the characteristics of wise individuals that promote positive aging.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aldwin, C. M., & Gilmer, D. F. (2004). Health, illness, and optimal aging: Biological and psychosocial perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ardelt, M. (2003). Empirical assessment of a three-dimensional wisdom scale. Research on Aging, 25(3), 275–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baltes, P. B. (2004). Wisdom as orchestration of mind and virtue. Book in preparation.http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/ft/pb/PB_Wisdom_2004.pdf.

  • Baltes, M. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1986). The psychology of control and aging. Hillsdale, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (2000). Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. American Psychologist, 55(1), 122–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Meanings of life. New York, NY, USA: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2005). The pursuit of meaningfulness in life. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 608–618). New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Zur, H. (2009). Coping styles and affect. International Journal of Stress Management, 16(2), 87–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Zur, H., Yagil, D., & Oz, D. (2005). Coping strategies and leadership in the adaptation to social change: The israeli kibbutz. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 18(2), 87–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergsma, A., & Ardelt, M. (2012). Self-reported wisdom and happiness: An empirical investigation. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13(3), 481–499.

    Google Scholar 

  • Block, J. (1978). The Q-sort method in personality assessment and psychiatric research. Palo Alto, CA, England: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brugman, G. M. (2006). Wisdom and aging. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaire (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (6th ed., pp. 445–475). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chou, C., & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Estimates and tests in structural equation modeling. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 37–55). Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clayton, V. P., & Birren, J. E. (1980). The development of wisdom across the life-span: A reexamination of an ancient topic. In P. B. Baltes & O. G. Brim (Eds.) Life-span development and behaviour (Vol. 3). New York, NY, USA: Academic Press.

  • Danhauer, S. C., Carlson, C. R., & Andrykowski, M. A. (2005). Positive psychosocial functioning in later life: Use of meaning-based coping strategies by nursing home residents. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 24(4), 299–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S. (2008). The case for positive emotions in the stress response. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 21, 3–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S., & Greer, S. (2000). Promoting psychological well-being in the face of serious illness: When theory, research and practice inform each other. Psycho-Oncology, 9(1), 11–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man’s search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy. Oxford, England: Washington Square Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glidden, L. M., Billings, F. J., & Jobe, B. M. (2006). Personality, coping style, and well-being of parents rearing children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(12), 949–962.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, J., Wrosch, C., & Schulz, R. (2010). A motivational theory of life-span development. Psychological Review, 117, 32–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helson, R., & Srivastava, S. (2002). Creative and wise people: Similarities, differences and how they develop. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(10), 1430–1440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Evaluating model fit. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 76–99). Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage Publications, Inc.

  • Hudson, F. M. (1999). The adult years: Mastering the art of self-renewal. San Francisco, CA, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jennings, P. A. (2004). The role of personality, stress, and coping in the development of wisdom. ProQuest information & learning). Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 65(6), 3199.

  • Jennings, P. A., Aldwin, C. M., Levenson, M. R., Spiro, A. I., II, & Mroczek, D. K. (2006). Combat exposure, perceived benefits of military service, and wisdom in later life: Findings from the normative aging study. Research on Aging, 28(1), 115–134.

  • John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2004). Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, individual differences, and life span development. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1301–1333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, L. A., Hicks, J. A., Krull, J. L., & Del Gaiso, A. K. (2006). Positive affect and the experience of meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(1), 179–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, M. B., & Hunt, R. A. (1975). Measuring the religious variable: National replication. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 14(1), 13–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY, USA: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(1), 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lachman, M. E. (2006). Perceived control over aging-related declines: Adaptive beliefs and behaviors. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(6), 282–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lachman, M. E., & Firth, K. M. P. (2004). The adaptive value of feeling in control during midlife. In O. G. Brim, C. D. Ryff, & R. C. Kessler (Eds.), How healthy are we?: A national study of well-being at midlife (pp. 320–349). Chicago, IL, USA: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lachman, M. E., & Weaver, S. L. (1998). The sense of control as a moderator of social class differences in health and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 763–773.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY, USA: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, R., Norman, P., & Bennett, P. (2000). Coping, emotion and perceived health following myocardial infarction: Concurrent and predictive associations. British Journal of Health Psychology, 5(4), 337–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyster, T. L. (1996). A nomination approach to the study of wisdom in old age. ProQuest information & learning). Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 61(12), 6737.

  • Moskowitz, J. T., Hult, J. R., Bussolari, C., & Acree, M. (2009). What works in coping with HIV? A meta-analysis with implications for coping with serious illness. Psychological Bulletin, 135(1), 121–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mossbarger, B. (2009). The ‘fit’ model of personal control and well-being in younger and older adults. Journal of Adult Development, 16(1), 25–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ntoumanis, N., & Biddle, S. J. H. (1998). The relationship of coping and its perceived effectiveness to positive and negative affect in sport. Personality and Individual Differences, 24(6), 773–788.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulhus, D. L. (1984). Two-component models of socially desirable responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(3), 598–609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L. I., & Schooler, C. (1978). The structure of coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19(1), 2–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, D. W., & Zeigler, M. (1981). The desired control measure and adjustment among the elderly. In H. Lefcourt (Ed.), Research with the locus of control construct (Vol. 1, pp. 127–159). New York, NY, USA: Academic Press.

  • Reker, G. T. (2005). Meaning in life of young, middle-aged, and older adults: Factorial validity, age, and gender invariance of the personal meaning index (PMI). Personality and Individual Differences, 38(1), 71–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reker, G. T., & Wong, P. T. (1988). Aging as an individual process: Toward a theory of personal meaning. In J. E. Birren & V. L. Bengston (Eds.), Emergent theories of aging (pp. 214–246). New York, NY, USA: Springer.

  • Rodin, J. (1986). Aging and health: Effects of the sense of control. Science, 233(4770), 1271–1276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, J. W., & Kahn, R. L. (1998). Successful aging. New York, NY, USA: Pantheon Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719–727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schanowitz, J. Y., & Nicassio, P. M. (2006). Predictors of positive psychosocial functioning of older adults in residential care facilities. Journal of Behavioral Medecine, 29(2), 191–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheier, M. F., Wrosch, C., Baum, A., Cohen, S., Martire, L. M., Matthews, K. A., et al. (2006). The life engagement test: Assessing purpose in life. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29(3), 291–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulz, R., & Heckhausen, J. (1996). A life span model of successful aging. American Psychologist, 51(7), 702–714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, E. A. (1996). A guide to constructs of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(3), 549–570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1990). Wisdom-related knowledge: Age/cohort differences in response to life-planning problems. Developmental Psychology, 26(3), 494–505.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staudinger, U. M., Lopez, D. F., & Baltes, P. B. (1997). The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance: Intelligence, personality, and more? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(11), 1200–1214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F., Oishi, S., & Kashdan, T. B. (2009). Meaning in life across the life span: Levels and correlates of meaning in life from emerging adulthood to older adulthood. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(1), 43–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Pearson Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, M., Bates, G., & Webster, J. D. (2011). Comparing the psychometric properties of two measures of wisdom: Predicting forgiveness and psychological well-being with the Self-Assessed Wisdom Scale (SAWS) and the Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (3D-WS). Experimental Aging Research, 37, 129–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, S. C. (2005). The role of personal control in adaptive functioning. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 271–278). New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler adult intelligence scale—Fourth edition. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrosch, C., & Heckhausen, J. (2002). Perceived control of life regrets: Good for young and bad for old adults. Psychology and Aging, 17(2), 340–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wrosch, C., Heckhausen, J., & Lachman, M. E. (2006). Goal management across adulthood and old age: The adaptive value of primary and secondary control. In D. K. Mroczek & T. D. Little (Eds.), Handbook of personality development (pp. 399–421). Mahwah, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

  • Wrosch, C., Scheier, M. F., Miller, G. E., Schulz, R., & Carver, C. S. (2003). Adaptive self-regulation of unattainable goals: Goal disengagement, goal reengagement, and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(12), 1494–1508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wyler, A. R., Masuda, M., & Holmes, T. H. (1971). Magnitude of life events and seriousness of illness. Psychosomatic Medicine, 33(2), 115–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zika, S., & Chamberlain, K. (1992). On the relation between meaning in life and psychological well-being. British Journal of Psychology, 83(1), 133–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the invaluable contribution of our dedicated participants and students, without which the Concordia Longitudinal Retirement Study could never have come to fruition. This research was supported by fellowships from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Fonds Québecois de Recherche sur la Société et la Culture, as well as by a grant awarded to Dolores Pushkar, June Chaikelson, Michael Conway, Jamshid Etezadi, Dina Giannopoulos, Karen Li, and Carsten Wrosch from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Research in Human Development & Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC, H4B-1R6, Canada

    Sarah Etezadi & Dolores Pushkar

Authors
  1. Sarah Etezadi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dolores Pushkar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sarah Etezadi.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Etezadi, S., Pushkar, D. Why are Wise People Happier? An Explanatory Model of Wisdom and Emotional Well-Being in Older Adults. J Happiness Stud 14, 929–950 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9362-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9362-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation