Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of social adversity and HIV on subcortical shape and neurocognitive function

  • Original Research
  • Published:
Brain Imaging and Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of the current study was to examine the independent and interactive effects of social adversity (SA) and HIV infection on subcortical shape alterations and cognitive functions. Participants included HIV+ (n = 70) and HIV- (n = 23) individuals who underwent MRI, neurocognitive and clinical assessment, in addition to completing questionnaires from which responses were used to create an SA score. Bilateral amygdalae and hippocampi were extracted from T1-weighted images. Parametric statistical analyses were used to compare the radial distance of the structure surface to a median curve to determine the presence of localized shape differences as a function of HIV, SA and their interaction. Next, multiple regression was used to examine the interactive association between HIV and SA with cognitive performance data. An HIV*SA interactive effect was found on the shape of the right amygdala and left hippocampus. Specifically, HIV-infected participants (but not HIV-uninfected controls) who evidenced higher levels of SA displayed an inward deformation of the surface consistent with reduced volume of these structures. We found interactive effects of HIV and SA on learning/memory performance. These results suggest that HIV+ individuals may be more vulnerable to neurological and cognitive changes in the hippocampus and amygdala as a function of SA than HIV- individuals, and that SA indicators of childhood SES and perceived racial discrimination are important components of adversity that are associated with cognitive performance.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., et al. (1994). Socioeconomic status and health: the challenge of the gradient. American Psychologist, 49, 15–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allison, P. (2012). When can you safely ignore multicollinearity? Statistical Horizons. Last modified September 10, 2012.

  • Alvarez-Uria, G., Naik, P. K., Pakam, R., & Midde, M. (2012). Early HIV viral load determination after initiating first-line antiretroviral therapy for indentifying patients with high risk of developing virological failure: data from a cohort study in a resource-limited setting. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 17, 1152–1155. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2012.02982.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arentoft, A., Byrd, D., Monzones, J., Coulehan, K., Fuentes, A., Rosario, A., et al. (2015). Socioeconomic status and neuropsychological functioning: associations in an ethnically diverse HIV+ cohort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(2), 232–254.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, L. L., Lewis, T. T., Begeny, C. T., Yu, L., Bennett, D. A., & Wilson, R. S. (2012). Perceived discrimination and cognition in older African Americans. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(5), 856.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation, 1, 82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, B. W., Thames, A. D., Woo, E., Castellon, S. A., & Hinkin, C. H. (2011). Longitudinal change in cognitive function and medication adherence in HIV-infected adults. AIDS and Behavior, 15(8), 1888–1894.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bosch, N. M., Riese, H., Reijneveld, S. A., Bakker, M. P., Verhulst, F. C., Ormel, J., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2012). Timing matters: long term effects of adversities from prenatal period up to adolescence on adolescents’ cortisol stress response. The TRAILS study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(9), 1439–1447.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castelo, J. M. B., Sherman, S. J., Courtney, M. G., Melrose, R. J., & Stern, C. E. (2006). Altered hippocampal-prefrontal activation in HIV patients during episodic memory encoding. Neurology, 66(11), 1688–1695.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control (2015). HIV in African Americans. Fast Facts. Retrived online from: www.cdc.gov/hif/pdf/HIV-AA-english-508.pdf.

  • Clark, U. S., Cohen, R. A., Sweet, L. H., Gongvatana, A., Devlin, K. N., Hana, G. N., et al. (2012). Effects of HIV and early life stress on amygdala morphometry and neurocognitive function. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(04), 657–668.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Contrada, R. J., Ashmore, R. D., Gary, M. L., Coups, E., Egeth, J. D., Sewell, A., et al. (2001). Measures of ethnicity-related stress: psychometric properties, ethnic group differences, and associations with well-being. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(9), 1775–1820.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costafreda, S. G., Dinov, I. D., Zhuowen, T., Shi, Y., Liu, C.-Y., Kloszewska, I., Mecocci, P., Soininen, H., Tsolaki, M., Vellas, B., Wahlund, L.-O., Spenger, C., Toga, A. W., Lovestone, S., & Simmons, A. (2011). Automated hippocampal shape analysis predicts the onset of dementia in mild cognitive impairment. NeuroImage, 56(1), 212–219.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Csernansky, J. G., Schindler, M. K., Splinter, N. R., Wang, L., Gado, M., Selemon, L. D., et al. (2004). Abnormalities of thalamic volume and shape in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(5), 896–902.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, W. E., Hays, R. D., Duan, N., Andersen, R., Nakazono, T. T., Bozzette, S. A., & Shapiro, M. F. (2005). The effect of socioeconomic status on the survival of people receiving care for HIV infection in the United States. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 16(4), 655–676.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eiland, L., & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Early life stress followed by subsequent adult chronic stress potentiates anxiety and blunts hippocampal structural remodeling. Hippocampus, 22(1), 82–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Entringer, S., Buss, C., Kumsta, R., Hellhammer, D. H., Wadhwa, P. D., & Wust, S. (2009). Prenatal psychosocial stress exposure is associated with subsequent working memory performance in young women. Behavioral Neuroscience, 123, 886–893.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-Espejo, D., Bekinschtein, T., Monti, M. M., Pickard, J. D., Junque, C., Coleman, M. R., & Owen, A. M. (2011). Diffusion weighted imaging distinguishes the vegetative state from the minimally conscious state. NeuroImage, 54(1), 103–112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). “mini-mental state”: a practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189–198.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frodl, T., & O'Keane, V. (2013). How does the brain deal with cumulative stress? A review with focus on developmental stress, HPA axis function and hippocampal structure in humans. Neurobiology of Disease, 52, 24–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, J. L., Chandra, A., Wolfe, B. L., & Pollak, S. D. (2011). Association between income and the hippocampus. PloS One, 6(5), e18712.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, J. L., Nacewicz, B. M., Sutterer, M. J., Cayo, A. A., Schaefer, S. M., Rudolph, K. D., et al. (2015). Behavioral problems after early life stress: contributions of the hippocampus and amygdala. Biological Psychiatry, 77(4), 314–323.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayano, F., Nakamura, M., Asami, T., Uehara, K., Yoshida, T., Roppongi, T., et al. (2009). Smaller amygdala is associated with anxiety in patients with panic disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 63(3), 266–276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heaton, R. K., Marcotte, T. D., Mindt, M. R., Sadek, J., Moore, D. J., Bentley, H., et al. (2004). The impact of HIV-associated neuropsychological impairment on everyday functioning. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 10(03), 317–331.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heaton, R. K., Clifford, D. B., Franklin, D. R., Woods, S. P., Ake, C., Vaida, F., et al. (2010). HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders persist in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy CHARTER study. Neurology, 75(23), 2087–2096.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Heaton, R. K., Franklin, D. R., Ellis, R. J., McCutchan, J. A., Letendre, S. L., LeBlanc, S., et al. (2011). HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders before and during the era of combination antiretroviral therapy: differences in rates, nature, and predictors. Journal of Neurovirology, 17(1), 3–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hellemans, K. G., Sliwowska, J. H., Verma, P., & Weinberg, J. (2010). Prenatal alcohol exposure: fetal programming and later life vulnerability to stress, depression and anxiety disorders. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(6), 791–807.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. P., & Cullinan, W. E. (1997). Neurocircuitry of stress: central control of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenocortical axis. Trends in Neurosciences, 20(2), 78–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hollingshead, A. B. & Redlich, F. C. (2007). Social class and mental illness: a community study. 1958. American Journal of Public Health, 97(10), 1756–1757.

  • Hughes, E. J., Bond, J., Svrckova, P., Makropoulos, A., Ball, G., Sharp, D. J., David Edwards, A., Hajnal, J. V., & Counsell, S. J. (2012). Regional changes in thalamic shape and volume with increasing age. NeuroImage, 63(3), 1134–1142.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ibrahim, F., Anderson, J., Bukutu, C., & Elford, J. (2008). Social and economic hardship among people living with HIV in London. HIV Medicine, 9(8), 616–624.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, L., & Sapolsky, R. (1991). The role of the hippocampus in feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical Axis. Endocrine Reviews, 12(2), 118–134.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jednoróg, K., Altarelli, I., Monzalvo, K., Fluss, J., Dubois, J., et al. (2012). Correction: the influence of socioeconomic status on children’s brain structure. PloS One, 7(10). doi:10.1371/annotation/47661de2-2c53-4396-9f88-06b5ad233566.

  • Kim, P., Evans, G. W., Angstadt, M., Ho, S. S., Sripada, C. S., Swain, J. E., et al. (2013). Effects of childhood poverty and chronic stress on emotion regulatory brain function in adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(46), 18442–18447.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, M., Kumar, A. M., Morgan, R., Szapocznik, J., & Eisdorfer, C. (1993). Abnormal pituitary-adrenocortical response in early HIV-1 infection. Journal of Aquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 6, 61–65.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, M., Kumar, A. M., Waldrop, D., Antoni, M. H., & Eisdorfer, C. (2003). HIV-1 infection and its impact on the HPA Axis, cytokines, and cognition. Stress, 6(3), 167–172.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawson, G. M., Duda, J. T., Avants, B. B., Wu, J., & Farah, M. J. (2013). Associations between children's socioeconomic status and prefrontal cortical thickness. Developmental Science, 16(5), 641–652.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lorant, V., Deliege, D., Eaton, W., Robert, A., Philippot, P., & Ansseau, M. (2003). Socioeconomic inequalities in depression: a meta-analysis. American journal of epidemiology., 157(2), 98–112.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 434–445.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maki, P. M., Cohen, M. H., Weber, K., Little, D. M., Fornelli, D., Rubin, L. H., et al. (2009). Impairments in memory and hippocampal function in HIV-positive vs HIV-negative women: a preliminary study. Neurology, 72(19), 1661–1668.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Maki, P. M., Rubin, L. H., Valcour, V., Martin, E., Crystal, H., Young, M., et al. (2015). Cognitive function in women with HIV findings from the Women's interagency HIV study. Neurology, 84(3), 231–240.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Massana, G., Serra-Grabulosa, J. M., Salgado-Pineda, P., Gastó, C., Junqué, C., Massana, J., et al. (2003). Amygdalar atrophy in panic disorder patients detected by volumetric magnetic resonance imaging. NeuroImage, 19(1), 80–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B. S., & Gianaros, P. J. (2010). Central role of the brain in stress and adaptation: links to socioeconomic status, health, and disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 190–222.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Montez, J. K., Bromberger, J. T., Harlow, S. D., Kravitz, H. M., & Matthews, K. A. (2016). Life-course socioeconomic status and metabolic syndrome among midlife women. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbw014.

  • Moore, D. J., Masliah, E., Rippeth, J. D., Gonzalez, R., Carey, C. L., Cherner, M., et al. (2006). Cortical and subcortical neurodegeneration is associated with HIV neurocognitive impairment. AIDS, 20(6), 879–887.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noble, K. G., Grieve, S. M., Korgaonkar, M. S., Engelhardt, L. E., Griffith, E. Y., Williams, L. M., & Brickman, A. M. (2012). Hippocampal volume varies with educational attainment across the life-span. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 307.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ong, D., Walterfang, M., Malhi, G. S., Styner, M., Velakoulis, D., & Pantelis, C. (2012). Size and shape of the caudate nucleus in individuals with bipolar affective disorder. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 46(4), 340–351.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, S., Moran, P., Epel, E., Sinclair, E., Kemeny, M., Deeks, S.G., Bacchetti, P., Acree, M., Epling, L., Kirschbaum, C., Hecht, F.M. (2013). Cortisol patterns are associated with T cell activation in HIV. PLOS One: Retrieved online from http://www.plosone.org.

  • Pesonen, A. K., Räikkönen, K., Feldt, K., Heinonen, K., Osmond, C., Phillips, D. I., et al. (2010). Childhood separation experience predicts HPA axis hormonal responses in late adulthood: a natural experiment of World War II. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(5), 758–767.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rabkin, J. G., McElhiney, M., Ferrando, S. J., Van Gorp, W., & Lin, S. H. (2004). Predictors of employment of men with HIV/AIDS: a longitudinal study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66(1), 72–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rao, U., Chen, L. A., Bidesi, A. S., Shad, M. U., Thomas, M. A., & Hammen, C. L. (2010). Hippocampal changes associated with early-life adversity and vulnerability to depression. Biological Psychiatry, 67(4), 357–364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, M., & Wadsworth, M. E. J. (2004). Long term effects of early adversity on cognitive function. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 89(10), 922–927.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, L. H., Cook, J. A., Weber, K. M., Cohen, M. H., Martin, E., Valcour, V., Milam, J., Anastos, K., Young, M. A., Alden, C., Gustafson, D. R., & Maki, P. M. (2015). The association of perceived stress and verbal memory is greater in HIV-infected versus HIV-uninfected women. Journal of Neurovirology, 21(4), 422–432 PMID: 25791344.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Why stress is bad for your brain. Science, 273(5276), 749–750.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schuster, M. A., Collins, R., Cunningham, W. E., Morton, S. C., Zierler, S., Wong, M., & Kanouse, D. E. (2005). Perceived discrimination in clinical care in a nationally representative sample of HIV-infected adults receiving health care. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 20(9), 807–813.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shonkoff, J. P., Garner, A. S., Siegel, B. S., Dobbins, M. I., Earls, M. F., McGuinn, L., et al. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232–e246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spies, G. & Seedat, S. (2014). Depression and resilience in women with HIV and early life stress: does trauma play a mediating role? A cross-sectional study 4(2).

  • Spies, G., Fennema-Notestine, C., Cherner, M., & Seedat, S. (2016). Changes in cognitive function in women with HIV infection and early life stress. AIDS Care, 29(1), 14–23.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B., Gibbon, M., & First, M. B. (1995). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV (SCID). New York: Biometrics Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staff, R. T., Murray, A. D., Ahearn, T. S., Mustafa, N., Fox, H. C., & Whalley, L. J. (2012). Childhood socioeconomic status and adult brain size: childhood socioeconomic status influences adult hippocampal size. Annals of Neurology, 71(5), 653–660.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steptoe, A., & Marmot, M. (2003). Burden of psychosocial adversity and vulnerability in middle age: associations with biobehavioral risk factors and quality of life. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(6), 1029–1037.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, X., Holland, D., Dale, A. M., Younes, L., & Miller, M. I. (2014). Shape abnormalities of subcortical and ventricular structures in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: detecting, quantifying, and predicting. Human Brain Mapping, 35(8), 3701–3725.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J., & Turner, J. (2002). Perceived discrimination, social stress, and depression in the transition to adulthood: racial contrasts. Social Psychology Quarterly, 65(3), 213–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thames, A. D., Hinkin, C. H., Byrd, D. A., Bilder, R. M., Duff, K. J., Mindt, M. R., et al. (2013). Effects of stereotype threat, perceived discrimination, and examiner race on neuropsychological performance: simple as black and white? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 19(05), 583–593.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thomason, M. E., Marusak, H. A., Tocco, M. A., Vila, A. M., McGarragle, O., & Rosenberg, D. R. (2015). Altered amygdala connectivity in urban youth exposed to trauma. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(11), 1460–1468.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., Quinn, B. T., McCarry, T. W., Nurse, M., Gilhooly, T., et al. (2010). Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation. Developmental Science, 13(1), 46–61.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Toussaint, L., Shields, G. S., Dorn, G., & Slavich, G. M. (2016). Effects of lifetime stress exposure on mental and physical health in young adulthood: how stress degrades and forgiveness protects health. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(6), 1004–1014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tozzi, V., Balestra, P., Bellagamba, R., Corpolongo, A., Salvatori, M. F., Visco-Comandini, U., et al. (2007). Persistence of neuropsychologic deficits despite long-term highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV-related neurocognitive impairment: prevalence and risk factors. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 45(2), 174–182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Troxel, W. M., Matthews, K. A., Bromberger, J. T., & Sutton-Tyrrell, K. (2003). Chronic stress burden, discrimination, and subclinical carotid artery disease in African American and Caucasian women. Health Psychology, 22(3), 300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van den Bogaard, S. J., Dumas, E. M., Ferrarini, L., Milles, J., van Buchem, M. A., van der Grond, J., & Roos, R. A. (2011). Shape analysis of subcortical nuclei in Huntington's disease, global versus local atrophy–A results from the TRACK-HD study. Journal of Neurological Sciences, 307(1-2), 60–68.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, B. S., Valcour, V. G., Wendelken-Riegelhaupt, L., Esmaeili-Firidouni, P., Joshi, S. H., Gutman, B. A., & Thompson, P. M. (2015). Mapping abnormal subcortical brain morphometry in an elderly HIV+ cohort. NeuroImage: Clinical, 9, 564–573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weniger, G., Lange, C., Sachsse, U., & Irle, E. (2008). Amygdala and hippocampal volumes and cognition in adult survivors of childhood abuse with dissociative disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 118(4), 281–290.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2010). Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in adults and adolescents 2010. http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/arv/ adult2010/en/index.html. Accessed 29 Sept 2016.

  • Wicks, S., Hjern, A., Gunnell, D., Lewis, G., & Dalman, C. (2005). Social adversity in childhood and the risk of developing psychosis: a national cohort study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(9), 1652–1657.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 20–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., Priest, N., & Anderson, N. B. (2016). Understanding associations among race, socioeconomic status, and health: patterns and prospects. Health Psychology, 35(4), 407.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, T. J., Mahmood, Z., Kuhn, T. K., & Thames, A. D. (2016). Differential relationships between social adversity and depressive symptoms by HIV status and racial/ethnic identity. Health Psychology. doi:10.1037/hea0000458.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Winkleby, M. A., & Cubbin, C. (2003). Influence of individual and neighbourhood socioeconomic status on mortality among black, Mexican-American, and white women and men in the United States. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57(6), 444–452.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Woon, F. L., & Hedges, D. W. (2008). Hippocampal and amygdala volumes in children and adults with childhood maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. Hippocampus, 18(8), 729–736.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank William Cunningham, M.D., M.P.H. and Ronald Hays, Ph.D. for their helpful comments and suggestions on the manuscript.

We would like to acknowledge the following funding sources:

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) K23 MH095661 (PI: A. Thames)

Dr. Kuhn is supported through a National Institute of Mental Health T32 Postdoctoral Fellowship (Kuhn, MH 19535).

Mr. Williamson is supported through a National Institute of Mental Health Predoctoral Fellowship (Williamson, MH 15750)

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, 760 Westwood Plaza, 28-263, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA

    April D. Thames, Taylor P. Kuhn, Zanjbeel Mahmood, Robert M. Bilder & Elyse J. Singer

  2. Greater Los Angeles VA Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Taylor P. Kuhn

  3. Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Zanjbeel Mahmood, Robert M. Bilder & Timothy J. Williamson

  4. California State University Northridge, Northridge, CA, USA

    Alyssa Arentoft

Authors
  1. April D. Thames
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Taylor P. Kuhn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Zanjbeel Mahmood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Robert M. Bilder
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Timothy J. Williamson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Elyse J. Singer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Alyssa Arentoft
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to April D. Thames.

Ethics declarations

This study was funded by National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) K23 MH095661 (PI: A. Thames)

Conflict of interest

Dr. April Thames declares that she has no conflict of interest.

Dr. Taylor Kuhn declares that he has no conflict of interest.

Ms. Zanjbeel Mahmood declares that she has no conflict of interest.

Dr. Robert Bilder declares that he has no conflict of interest.

Mr. Timothy Williamson declares that he has no conflict of interest.

Dr. Elyse Singer declares that she has no conflict of interest.

Dr. Alyssa Arentoft declares no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. All procedures were approved by UCLA Institutional Review Board.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Thames, A.D., Kuhn, T.P., Mahmood, Z. et al. Effects of social adversity and HIV on subcortical shape and neurocognitive function. Brain Imaging and Behavior 12, 96–108 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-017-9676-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-017-9676-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation