Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Etiology of Reading Difficulties and Rapid Naming: The Colorado Twin Study of Reading Disability

  • Published:
Behavior Genetics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Children with reading deficits perform more slowly than normally-achieving readers on speed of processing measures, such as rapid naming (RN). Although rapid naming is a well-established correlate of reading performance and both are heritable, few studies have attempted to assess the cause of their covariation. Measures of rapid naming (numbers, colors, objects, and letters subtests), phonological decoding, orthographic choice, and a composite variable (DISCR) derived from the reading recognition, reading comprehension, and spelling subtests of the Peabody Individual Achievement Test were obtained from a total of 550 twin pairs with a positive school history of reading problems. Basic DeFries and Fulker (DF) multiple regression models for the analysis of selected twin data confirmed the heritable nature of phonological decoding, orthographic choice, DISCR, and rapid-naming composites. Bivariate DF models were employed to examine the extent to which deficits in the three reading-related measures covary genetically with rapid naming. Significant bivariate heritability estimates for each of the reading measures with the numbers and letters rapid-naming composite were also obtained. As expected, univariate sib-pair linkage analyses indicated the presence of a quantitative trait locus (QTL) on chromosome 6p21.3 for phonological decoding and orthographic choice deficits. Bivariate linkage analyses were then conducted to test the hypothesis that this QTL for reading difficulties is pleiotropic for slower performance on RN tasks. The results obtained from these analyses did not provide substantial evidence that the 6p QTL for reading difficulties has significant effects on rapid naming; however, larger samples would be required to test this hypothesis more rigorously.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Abecasis, G. R., Cherny, S. S., Cookson, W. O. C., Cardon, L. R. (2000). Multipoint engine for rapid likelihood inference. Am. J. Hum. Gen. 67(Suppl): 1816.

    Google Scholar 

  • Badian, N. A. (1993). Phonemic awareness, naming, visual symbol processing, and reading. Read. Writing Interdisc. J. 5: 87–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blachman, B. A. (1984). Relationship of rapid naming ability and language analysis skills to kindergarten and first-grade reading achievement. J. Ed. Psychol. 76: 610–622.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowers, P. G., and Wolf, M. (1993). Theoretical links among naming speed, precise timing mechanisms, and orthographic skill in dyslexia. Read. Writing Interdisc. J. 5: 69–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cardon, L. R., Smith, S. D., Fulker, D. W., Kimberling, W. J., Pennington, B. F., and DeFries, J. C. (1994). Quantitative trait locus for reading disability on chromosome 6. Science 266: 276–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cardon, L. R., Smith, S. D., Fulker, D. W., Kimberling, W. J., Pennington, B. F., and DeFries, J. C. (1995). Quantitative trait locus for reading disability: Correction. Science 268: 1553.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carey, G., and Williamson, J. (1991). Linkage analysis of quantitative traits: Increased power by using selected samples. Am. J. Hum. Gen. 49: 786–796.

    Google Scholar 

  • Compton, D. L. (2000). Modeling the response of normally achieving and at-risk first grade children to word reading instruction. Ann. Dyslex. 50: 53–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Compton, D. L., Olson, R. K., and DeFries, J. C. (submitted). Are all RAN created equal? Comparing the relationships among two different formats of alphanumeric RAN and various word reading skills in normally achieving and reading disabled individuals.

  • Cornwall, A. (1992). The relationship of phonological awareness, rapid naming, and verbal memory to severe reading and spelling disability. J. Learn. Disabil. 25: 532–538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, C. J., Knopik, V. S., Olson, R. K., Wadsworth, S. J., and DeFries, J. C. (in press). Genetic and environmental influences on rapid naming and reading ability: A twin study. Ann. Dyslex.

  • DeFries, J. C. (1985). Colorado Reading Project. In D. B. Gray and J. F. Kavavagh (eds.), Biobehavioral measures of dyslexia Parkton, MD, York Press, pp. 107–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFries, J. C., and Alarcón, M. (1996). Genetics of specific reading disability. Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev. 2: 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFries, J. C., and Fulker, D. W. (1985). Multiple regression analysis of twin data. Behav. Gen. 15: 467–473.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFries, J. C., and Fulker, D. W. (1988). Multiple regression analysis of twin data: Etiology of deviant scores versus individual differences. Acta Genet. Med. Gemellolog. 37: 205–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFries, J. C., Olson, R. K., Pennington, B. F., and Smith, S. D. (1991). Colorado Reading Project: Past, present, and future. J. Learn. Disabil. 2: 37–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFries, J. C., Filipek, P. A., Fulker, D. W., Olson, R. K., Pennington, B. F., Smith, S. D., and Wise, B. W. (1997). Colorado Learning Disabilities Research Center. J. Learn. Disabil. 8: 7–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M. B. (1972). Color-naming defects in dyslexic boys. Cortex 8: 164–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M. B., and Cutting, L. E. (1999). History and significance of rapid automatized naming. Ann. Dyslex. 49: 29–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M. B., and Rudel, R. G. (1974). Rapid “automatized” naming of pictured objects, colors, letters, and numbers by normal children. Cortex 10: 186–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M. B., and Rudel, R. G. (1976). Rapid ‘automatized’ naming (R.A.N.): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia 14: 471–479.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, L. M., and Markwardt, F. C. (1970). Examiner' manual: Peabody individual achievement test. Circle Pines, MN, American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, S. E., Marlow, A. J., Lamb, J., Maestrini, E., Williams, D. F., Ricjardson, A. J., Weeks, D. E., Stein, J. F., and Monaco, A. P. (1999). A quantitative-trait locus on chromosome 6p influences different aspects of developmental dyslexia. Am. J. Hum. Gen. 64: 146–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fulker, D. W., Cardon, L. R., DeFries, J. C., Kimberling, W. J., Pennington, B. F., and Smith, S. D. (1991). Multiple regression analysis of sib-pair data on reading to detect quantitative trait loci. Read. Writing 3: 299–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gayán, J., and Olson, R. K. (2001). Genetic and environmental influences on orthographic and phonological skills in children with reading disability. Dev. Neuropsychology 20: 487–511.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gayán, J., Smith, S. D., Cherny, S. S., Cardon, L. R., Fulker, D. W., Brower, A. M., Olson, R. K., Pennington, B. F., and DeFries, J. C. (1999). Quantitative-trait locus for specific language and reading deficits on chromosome 6p. Am. J. Hum. Gen. 64: 157–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grigorenko, E. L., Wood, F. B., Meyer, M. S., Hart, L. A., Speed, W. C., Shuster, A., and Pauls, D. L. (1997). Susceptibility loci for distinct components of developmental dyslexia on chromosome 6 and 15. Am. J. Hum. Gen. 60: 27–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grigorenko, E. L., Wood, F. B., Meyer, M. S., and Pauls, D. L. (2000). Chromosome 6p influences on different dyslexia-related cognitive processes: Further confirmation. Am. J. Hum. Gen. 66: 715–723.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. H., LeDue, C. A., Watson, A. R., and Roter, A. H. (1996). An approach to high throughput genotyping. Genome Res. 6: 781–790.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halpern, J., and Whittemore, A. S. (1999). Multipoint linkage analysis: A cautionary note. Hum. Hered. 49: 194–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Idury, R. M., and Cardon, L. R. (1997). A simple method for automated allele binning in microsatellite markers. Genome Res. 7: 1104–1109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knopik, V. S., Alarcón, M., and DeFries, J. C. (1997). Comorbidity of mathematics and reading deficits: Evidence for a genetic etiology. Behav. Gen. 27: 447–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knopik, V. S., Smith, S. D., Cardon, L., Pennington, B., Gayán, J., Olson, R. K., DeFries, J. C. (submitted). Differential genetic etiology of reading component processes as a function of IQ.

  • Korhonen, T. T. (1995). The persistence of rapid naming problems in children with reading disabilities: A nine-year follow-up. J. Learn. Disabil. 28: 232–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lander, E. S., and Botstein, D. (1989). Mapping Mendelian factors underlying quantitative traits using RFLP linkage maps. Genetics 121: 185–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lessem, J. M., and Cherny, S. C. (2001). DeFries-Fulker multiple regression of sibship QTL data: A SAS macro. Bioinformatics 17: 371–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, S. E., and Lander, E. S. (1992). Systematic detection of errors in genetic linkage data. Genomics 14: 604–610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, M. S., Wood, F. B., Hart, L. A., and Felton, R. H. (1998). Selective predictive value of rapid automatized naming in poor readers. J. Learn. Disabil. 31: 106–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nichols, R. C., and Bilbro, W. C. (1966). The diagnosis of twin zygosity. Acta Genet. Statis. Med. 16: 265–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, R. K., Forsberg, H., and Wise, B. (1994a). Genes, environment, and the development of orthographic skills. In V. W. Berninger (ed.), The varieties of orthographic knowledge I: Theoretical and developmental issues, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 27–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, R. K., Forsberg, H., Wise, B., and Rack, J. (1994b). Measurement of word recognition, orthographic, and phonological skills. In G. R. Lyon (ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues Baltimore, MD: Brookes, pp. 243–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, R. K., Wise, B., Conners, F., Rack, J., and Fulker, D. W. (1989). Specific deficits in component reading and language skills: Genetic and environmental influences. J. Learn. Disabil. 22: 339–348.

    Google Scholar 

  • SAS. (2000). SAS software, Version 8 of the SAS System for Unix. Cary, NC: SAS Institute, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scarborough, H. S. (1998). Predicting the future achievement of second graders with reading disabilities: Contributions of phonemic awareness, verbal memory, rapid naming, and IQ. Ann. Dyslex. 48: 115–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, L. S., and Downey, D. M. (1995). Serial rapid naming skills in children with reading disabilities. Ann. Dyslex. 45: 31–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spring, C., and Capps, C. (1974). Encoding speed, rehearsal, and probed recall of dyslexic boys. J. Ed. Psychol. 66: 780–786.

    Google Scholar 

  • SPSS. (2000). SPSS for windows, release 10.0. Chicago, IL: SPSS, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, J., Pennington, B. F., Gilger, J. W., DeFries, J. C., and Gillis, J. J. (1993). Hyperactivity and spelling disability: Testing for shared genetic aetiology. J. Child Psychol. Psychiat. 34: 1137–1152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1974). Examiner' Manual: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised. New York: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1981). Examiner' Manual: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. New York: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt, E. G., Pennington, B. F., Smith, S. D., Cardon, L. R., Gayán, J., Knopik, V. S., Olson, R. K., and DeFries, J. C. (In press). Quantitative trait locus for reading disability on chromosome 6p is pleiotropic for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychiatric Genetics.

  • Wolf, M. (1986). Rapid alternating stimulus naming in the developmental dyslexias. Brain Lang. 27: 360–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, M., and Bowers, P. G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. J. Ed. Psychol. 91: 415–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, M., and Bowers, P. G. (2000). Naming-speed processes and developmental reading disabilities: An introduction to the special issue on the double-deficit hypothesis. J. Learn. Disabil. 33: 322–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, M., Bowers, P. G., and Biddle, K. (2000). Naming-speed processes, timing, and reading: A conceptual review. J. Learn. Disabil. 33: 387–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeffiro, T., and Eden, G. (2000). The neural basis of developmental dyslexia. Ann. Dyslex. 50: 3–30.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder

    Chayna J. Davis, Javier Gayán, Richard K. Olson & John C. DeFries

  2. Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO

    Valerie S. Knopik

  3. Center for Human Molecular Genetics, Munroe Meyer Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha

    Shelley D. Smith

  4. Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    Lon R. Cardon

  5. Department of Psychology, University of Denver, CO

    Bruce F. Pennington

Authors
  1. Chayna J. Davis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Javier Gayán
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Valerie S. Knopik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Shelley D. Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Lon R. Cardon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Bruce F. Pennington
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Richard K. Olson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. John C. DeFries
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Davis, C.J., Gayán, J., Knopik, V.S. et al. Etiology of Reading Difficulties and Rapid Naming: The Colorado Twin Study of Reading Disability. Behav Genet 31, 625–635 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013305730430

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013305730430

Search

Navigation