Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Adolescent Outcomes of Childhood Conduct Disorder Among Clinic-Referred Boys: Predictors of Improvement

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Much remains to be learned about the adolescent outcomes of clinic-referred boys whose childhood conduct problems are serious enough to meet diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder (CD). Six structured diagnostic assessments were conducted over 7 years of 73 clinic-referred 7–12-year-old boys who met criteria for CD in Wave 1. There were substantial individual differences in the adolescent outcomes of CD, ranging from worsening to sustained recovery, with most boys showing persistent, but fluctuating levels of CD. Improvement in CD was not accounted for by treatment or incarceration, but more positive outcomes over Waves 2–7 were predicted prospectively with substantial accuracy, using a combination of baseline predictors: less initial severity of CD, fewer symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, higher child verbal intelligence, greater family socioeconomic advantage, and not having antisocial biological parents.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Bardone, A. M., Moffitt, T., Caspi, A., & Dickson, N. (1996). Adult mental health and social outcomes of adolescent girls with depression and conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 811-829.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., Taylor, A., Smart, M., Jackson, J., Tagami, S., & Moffitt, T. E. (2001). Can women provide reliable information about their children's fathers? Cross-informant agreement about men's lifetime antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 915-920.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, P., & Brook, J. S. (1995). The reciprocal influence of punishment and child behavior disorder. In J. McCord (Ed.), Coercion and punishment in long-term perspectives (pp. 154-164). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costello, E. J., Edelbrock, C. S., & Costello, A. J. (1985). Validity of the NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children: A comparison between psychiatric and pediatric referrals. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 13, 579-595.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costello, A. J., Edelbrock, C., Kalas, R., & Dulcan, M. (1984). The NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC): Development, reliability, and comparison between clinical and lay interviewers. Worcester, MA: University of Massachusetts Medical Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1996). Physical discipline among African American and European American mothers: Links to children's externalizing behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 32, 1065-1072.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., & McMahon, R. J. (1998). Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: A conceptual and empirical formulation. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, 61-75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edelbrock, C., Costello, A. J., Dulcan, M. K., Kalas, R., & Conover, N. C. (1985). Age differences in the reliability of the psychiatric interview of the child. Child Development, 56, 265-275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edelbrock, C., & Costello, A. J. (1988). Convergence between statistically derived behavior problem syndromes and child psychiatric diagnoses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 219-231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eron, L. D., & Huesmann, L. R. (1990). The stability of aggressive behavior—even unto the third generation. In M. M. S. M. Lewis (Ed.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology. Perspectives in developmental psychology (pp. 147-156). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Esser, G., Schmidt, M. H., & Woerner, W. (1990). Epidemiology and course of psychiatric disorders in school-age children: Results of a longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 31, 243-263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrington, D. P. (1991). Childhood aggression and adult violence: Early precursors and later-life outcomes. In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 5-29). Hilsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrington, D. P., Loeber, R., & Van Kammen, W. B. (1990). Long-term criminal outcomes of hyperactivity-impulsivity-attention deficit and conduct problems in childhood. In L. N. R. M. Robins (Ed.), Straight and devious pathways from childhood to adulthood (pp. 62-81). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Lynskey, M. T. (1995). The stability of disruptive childhood behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 379-396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D. M., Lynskey, M. T., & Horwood, L. J. (1996). Factors associated with continuity and changes in disruptive behavior patterns between childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 533-553.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., & Loney, B. R. (1999). Outcomes of children and adolescents with oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. In H. C. Quay & A. E. Hogan (Eds.), Handbook of the disruptive behavior disorders (pp. 507-524). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, P., & Rutter, M. (1973). Psychiatric disorder in the young adolescent. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 66, 1226-1229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrington, R., Fudge, H., Rutter, M., Pickles, A., & Hill, J. (1991). Adult outcomes of childhood and adolescent depression: II. Links with antisocial disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 434-439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, E. L., Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., & Hanson, K. S. (1994). Criterion validity of informants in the diagnosis of disruptive behavior disorders in children: A preliminary study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 410-414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hathaway, S. R., & Monachesi, E. D. (1952). The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory in the study of juvenile delinquents. American Sociological Review, 17, 704-710.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogan, A. E. (1999). Cognitive functioning in children with oppositional and conduct disorder. In H. C. Quay & A. E. Hogan (Eds.), Handbook of disruptive behavior disorders (pp. 317-336). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huesmann, L. R., Lefkowitz, M. M., & Eron, L. D. (1978). Sum of MMPI Scales F, 4, and 9 as a measure of aggression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46(5), 1071-1078.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, P. S., Rubio-Stipec, M., Canino, G., Bird, H. R., Dulcan, M. K., Schwab-Stone, M. E., et al. (1999). Parent and child contributions to diagnosis of mental disorder: Are both informants always necessary? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1569-1579.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., & Wu, P. (1995). Disentangling mother-child effects in the development of antisocial behavior. In J. McCord (Ed.), Coercion and punishment in long-term perspectives (pp. 106-123). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (1985). Treatment of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kilgore, K., Snyder, J., & Lentz, C. (2000). The contribution of parental discipline, parental monitoring, and school risk to early-onset conduct problems in African American boys and girls. Developmental Psychology, 36, 835-845.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Hart, E. L., Frick, P. J., Applegate, B., Zhang, Q., et al. (1995). Four-year longitudinal study of conduct disorder in boys: Patterns and predictors of persistence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 83-93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Quay, H. C., Applegate, B., Shaffer, D., Waldman, I., et al. (1998). Validity of DSM-IV subtypes of conduct disorder based on age of onset. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 435-442.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Piacentini, J. C., McBurnett, K., Stone, P. A., Hartdagen, S., & Hynd, G. W. (1988). Psychopathology in the parents of children with conduct disorder and hyperactivity. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 163-170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Russo, M. F., Walker, J. L., & Piacentini, J. C. (1989). Personality characteristics of the mothers of children with disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 512-515.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R. (1982). The stability of antisocial and delinquent child behavior: A review. Child Development, 53, 1431-1446.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R. (1991). Antisocial behavior: More enduring than changeable? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 393-397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., Drinkwater, M., Yin, Y., Anderson, S. J., Schmidt, L. C., & Crawford, A. (2000). Stability of family interaction from ages 6 to 18. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 353-369.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Van Kammen, W. B. (1998). Antisocial behavior and mental health problems: Explanatory factors in childhood and adolescence. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., Green, S. M., Lahey, B. B., Frick, P. J., & McBurnett, K. (2000). Findings on disruptive behavior disorders from the first decade of the Developmental Trends Study. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3, 37-60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., & Lahey, B. B. (1989). Optimal informants on childhood disruptive behavior disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 1, 317-337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynam, D. R. (1996). Early identification of chronic offenders: Who is the fledgling psychopath? Psychological Bulletin, 120, 209-234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynam, D. R., & Henry, B. (2001). The role of neuropsychological deficits in conduct disorders. In J. Hill & B. Maughan (Eds.), Conduct disorders in childhood and adolescence (pp. 235-263). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Garmezy, N., Tellegen, A., Pellegrini, D. S., Larkin, K., & Larsen, A. (1988). Competence and stress in school children: The moderating effects of individual and family qualities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 29, 745-764.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (1990). Juvenile delinquency and attention deficit disorder: Boys' developmental trajectories from age 3 to age 15. Child Development, 61, 893-910.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (1993). The neuropsychology of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 135-151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moss, H. B., Baron, D. A., Hardie, T. L., & Vanyukov, M. M. (2001). Preadolescent children of substance-dependent fathers with antisocial personality disorder: Psychiatric disorders and problem behaviors. American Journal on Addictions, 10, 269-278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagin, D., & Tremblay, R. (2001). Parental and early childhood predictors of persistent physical aggression in boys from kindergarten to high school. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 389-394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Offord, D. R., Boyle, M. H., Racine, Y. A., Fleming, J. E., Cadman, D. T., Blum, H. M., Byrne, C., Links, P. S., Lipman, E. L., MacMillan, H. L., Grant, N. I. R., Sanford, N. M., Szatmari, P., Thomas, H., & Woodward, C. A. (1992). Outcome, prognosis, and risk in a longitudinal follow-up study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 916-923.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (1998). Antisocial boys. In J. M. O. K. Jenkins (Ed.), Human emotions: A reader (pp. 330-336). Maiden, MA: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1984). The correlation of family management practices and delinquency. Child Development, 55, 1299-1307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfiffner, L., McBurnett, K., & Rathouz, P. J. (2001). Father absence and familial antisocial characteristics. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 357-367.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piacentini, J. C., Cohen, P., & Cohen, J. (1992). Combining discrepant diagnostic information from multiple sources: Are complex algorithms better than simple ones? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 51-63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L. (1966). Deviant children grown up. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L. (1978). Sturdy childhood predictors of adult antisocial behaviour: Replication from longitudinal studies. Psychological Medicine, 8, 611-622.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L., & Ratcliff, K. S. (1979). Risk factors in the continuation of childhood antisocial behavior into adulthood. International Journal of Mental Health, 7, 96-115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L., West, P. A., & Herjanic, B. L. (1975). Arrests and delinquency in two generations: A study of Black urban families and their children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 16, 125-140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schonfeld, I. S., Shaffer, D., O'Connor, P., & Portnoy, S. (1988). Conduct disorder and cognitive functioning: Testing three causal hypotheses. Child Development, 59, 993-1007.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R., & Endicott, J. (1967). Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R., Williams, J. B. W., & Gibbon, M. (1987). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R: Non-patient version. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stattin, H., & Magnusson, D. (1989). The role of early aggressive behavior in the frequency, seriousness, and types of later crime. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 710-718.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stattin, H., & Trost, K. (2000). When do preschool conduct problems link to future social adjustment problems and when do they not? In L. R. Bergman, R. R. Cairns, L.-G. Nilsson, & L. Nystedt (Eds.), Developmental science and the holistic approach (pp. 349-375). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storm-Mathisen, A., & Vaglum, P. (1994). Conduct disorder patients 20 years later: A personal follow-up study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia, 89, 416-420.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Zhang, Q., van Kammen, W., & Maguin, E. (1993). The double edge of protective and risk factors for delinquency: Interrelations and developmental patterns. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 683-701.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhulst, F. C., & Van der Ende, J. (1992). Six-year stability of parent-reported problem behavior in an epidemiological sample. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 595-610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vuchinich, S., Bank, L., & Patterson, G. R. (1992). Parenting, peers, and the stability of antisocial behavior in preadolescent boys. Developmental Psychology, 28(3), 510-521.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1974). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised. New York: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeger, S. L., & Liang, K.-Y. (1986). Longitudinal data analysis for discrete and continuous outcomes. Biometrics, 42, 121-130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zoccolillo, M., Pickles, A., Quinton, D., & Rutter, M. (1992). The outcome of childhood conduct disorder: Implications for defining adult personality disorder and conduct disorder. Psychological Medicine, 22, 971-986.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

    Benjamin B. Lahey & Rolf Loeber

  2. Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Ohio

    Jeffrey Burke

  3. Department of Health Studies, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

    Paul J. Rathouz

Authors
  1. Benjamin B. Lahey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rolf Loeber
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jeffrey Burke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Paul J. Rathouz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lahey, B.B., Loeber, R., Burke, J. et al. Adolescent Outcomes of Childhood Conduct Disorder Among Clinic-Referred Boys: Predictors of Improvement. J Abnorm Child Psychol 30, 333–348 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015761723226

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015761723226

Search

Navigation