Skip to main content
Log in

Learning to Teach: The Acquisition and Maintenance of Teaching Skills

  • Published:
Journal of Behavioral Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We reviewed 49 studies which used direct observation procedures to provide data on the effects of pre-service and inservice training in practical classroom teaching behaviors and skills. We found stronger effects for training packages which included classroom practice with performance feedback. The research provided conflicting evidence regarding the value of modeling, role-play, cueing systems, and contingency management components in practical skills training. The weakest training effects were those produced by microteaching, Minicourse, and protocol training packages. Twenty of the evaluations also provided follow-up data but the design of these studies did not permit any conclusions to be drawn regarding the training conditions which are necessary for the maintenance of newly acquired classroom teaching skills. We concluded that identification of the training conditions which are necessary for the maintenance of new teaching skills will require more thoughtful conceptualizations of maintenance and its measurement, and more carefully designed component analyses of those factors suggested by basic research as being necessary for maintenance.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Allen, C. T., & Forman, S. G. (1984). Efficacy of methods of training teachers in behavior modification. School Psychology Review, 13, 26–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, T. K., Kratochwill, T. R., & Bergan, J. R. (1986). Training teachers in behavioral consultation and therapy: An analysis of verbal behaviors. Journal of School Psychology, 24, 229–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baer, D. M. (1981). How to plan for generalization. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binder, C. (1993). Behavioral fluency: Evolution of a new paradigm. Behavior Analyst, 19, 163–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bondi, J. C., Jr. (1970). Feedback from interaction analysis: Some implications for the improvement of teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 21(2), 189–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borg, W. R. (1972). The minicourse as a vehicle for changing teacher behavior: A three-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 572–579.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borg, W. R. (1973). Protocols: Competency based teacher education modules. Educational Technology, 13(10), 17–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borg, W. R. (1975). Protocol materials as related to teacher performance and pupil achievement. Journal of Educational Research, 69, 23–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borg, W. R., & Ascione, F. R. (1982). Classroom management in elementary mainstreaming classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 85–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borg, W. R., Kallenbach, W., Morris, M., & Friebel, A. (1969). Videotape feedback and microteaching in a teacher training model. Journal of Experimental Education, 37(4), 9–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borg, W. R., Langer, P., & Wilson, J. (1975). Teacher classroom management skills and pupil behavior. Journal of Experimental Education, 44(2), 52–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borg, W. R., & Stone, D. R. (1974). Protocol materials as a tool for changing teacher behavior. Journal of Experimental Education, 43(1), 34–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowles, P. E., Jr., & Nelson, R. O. (1976). Training teachers as mediators: Efficacy of a workshop versus the bug-in-the-ear technique. Journal of School Psychology, 14, 15–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. C., Montgomery, R., & Barclay, J. R. (1969). An example of psychologist management of teacher reinforcement procedures in the elementary classroom. Psychology in the Schools, 6, 336–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carnine, D. W., & Fink, W. T. (1978). Increasing the rate of presentation and use of signals in elementary classroom teachers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 35–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandler, L. K., Lubeck, R. C., & Fowler, A. A. (1992). Generalization and maintenance of preschool children's social skills: A critical review and analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 415–428.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charles, H., Glynn, T., & McNaughton, S. (1984). Childcare workers' use of talking up and incidental teaching procedures under standard and self-management staff training packages. Educational Psychology, 4, 199–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles, R. I. (1980). Exemplification and characterisation moves in the classroom teaching of geometry concepts. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 11, 10–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, H. B., Macrae, J. W., Ida, D. M., & Smith, N. R. (1975). The role of instructions, modeling, verbal feedback, and contingencies in the training of classroom teaching skills. In E. Ramp & G. Semb (Eds.), Behavior analysis: Areas of research and application (pp 187–202). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, M. L., Thomson, C. L., & Baer, D. M, (1970). The experimental modification of teacher attending behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 153–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Copeland, W. D. (1975). The relationship between microteaching and student teacher classroom performance. Journal of Educational Research, 68, 289–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Copeland, W. D. (1977). Some factors related to student teacher classroom performance following microteaching training. American Educational Research Journal, 14, 147–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Copeland, W. D. (1978). Processes mediating the relationship between cooperating teacher behaviors and student-teacher classroom performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 95–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Copeland, W. D., & Doyle, W. (1973). Laboratory skill training and student teacher classroom performance. Journal of Experimental Education, 42, 16–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornford, I. R. (1991). Microteaching skill generalization and transfer: Training preservice teachers in introductory lesson skills. Teaching and Teacher Education, 7, 25–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cossairt, A., Hall, R. V., & Hopkins, B. L. (1973). The effects of experimenter's instructions, feedback, and praise on teacher praise and student attending behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 89–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cruickshank, D. R., & Haefele, D. (1987). Teacher preparation via protocol materials. International Journal of Educational Research, 11, 543–554.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cruickshank, D. R., & Metcalf, K. K. (1990). Training within teacher preparation. In R. E. Houston (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 469–497). New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dangel, R. F., Conard, R. J., & Hopkins, B. L. (1978). Follow-up on inservice teacher training programs: Can the principal do it? Journal of Educational Research, 72, 94–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeTure, L. R. (1979). Relative effects of modelling on the acquisition of wait-time by preservice elementary teachers and concomitant changes in dialogue patterns. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 16, 553–562.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyer, K., Williams, L., & Luce, S. C. (1991). Training teachers to use naturalistic communication strategies in classrooms for students with autism and other severe handicaps. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 22, 313–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Engelmann, S. (1988). The logic and facts of effective supervision. Education and Treatment of Children, 11, 328–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evertson, C. M. (1989). Improving elementary classroom management: A school-based training program for the beginning of the year. Journal of Educational Research, 83, 82–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gliessman, D., & Pugh, R. C. (1978). Acquiring teacher behavior concepts through the use of high-structure and low-structure protocol films. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 779–787.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gliessman, D., & Pugh, R. C. (1987). Conceptual instruction and intervention as methods of acquiring teaching skills. International Journal of Educational Research, 11, 555–563.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gliessman, D., Pugh, R. C., & Bielat, B. (1979). Acquiring teaching skills through concept-based training. Journal of Educational Research, 72, 149–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glynn, E. L., & Quinnell, J. Y. (1971). Modification of non-task behaviour in the classroom through contingent teacher remarks. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 6, 137–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, C. R., Hops, H., Walker, H. M., Guild, J. J., Stokes, J., Young, K. R., Keleman, K. S., & Willardson, M. (1979). Standardized classroom management program: Social validation and replication studies in Utah and Oregon. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 235–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greer, R. D., McCorkle, N., & Williams, G. (1989). A sustained analysis of the behaviors of schooling. Behavioral Residential Treatment, 4, 113–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross, A. M., & Ekstrand, M. (1983). Increasing and maintaining rates of teacher praise. Behavior Modification, 7, 126–135.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, R. V., Lund, D., & Jackson, D. (1968). Effects of teacher attention on study behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, R. V., Panyan, M., Rabon, D., & Broden, M. (1968). Instructing beginning teachers in reinforcement procedures which improve classroom control. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 315–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halle, J. W., Baer, D. M., & Spradlin, J. E. (1981). Teachers' generalized use of delay as a stimulus control procedure to increase language use in handicapped children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 389–409.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horton, G. O. (1975). Generalization of teacher behavior as a function of subject matter specific discrimination training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 311–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Houston, R. E. (Ed.). (1990). Handbook of research on teacher education. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, J. L., & Sloat, K. C. M. (1980). Teacher training effects: Real or illusory? Psychology in the Schools, 17, 109–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, G. (1976). Use of minicourse instruction with student teachers of educable mentally retarded children. Journal of Educational Research, 69, 355–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koegel, R. L., Russo, D. C., & Rincover, A. (1977). Assessing and training teachers in the generalized use of behavior modification with autistic children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 197–205.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korinek, L., Schmid, R., & McAdams, M. (1985). Inservice types and best practices. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 18, 33–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landin, D. K., Hebert, E., Cutton, D., & Hawkins, A. (1989). Developing the skill feedback behavior of teacher trainees. College Student Journal, 23, 27–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leach, D. J., & Ingram, K. L. (1989). The effects of information and feedback on teachers' classroom behaviour and students' academic engaged time. Educational Psychology, 9, 167–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Madsen, C. H., Jr., Becker, W. C., & Thomas, D. R. (1968). Rules, praise and ignoring: Elements of elementary classroom control. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 139–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKeown, D., Adams, H. E., Jr., & Forehand, R. (1975). Generalization to the classroom of principles of behavior modification taught to teachers. Behavior Research and Therapy, 13, 85–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merrett, F., & Wheldall, K. (1984). Training teachers to use the behavioural approach to classroom management: A review. Educational Psychology, 4, 213–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, D., Young, K. R., & Goldstein, S. (1983). Teaching behaviorally disordered students to increase teacher attention and praise in mainstreamed classrooms. Behavioral Disorders, 8, 265–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsonson, B. S., Baer, A. M., & Baer, D. M. (1974). The application of generalised correct social contingencies: An evaluation of a training program. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 427–437.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peck, C. A., Killen, C. C., & Baumgart, D. (1989). Increasing implementation of special education instruction in mainstream preschools: Direct and generalised effects of non-directive consultation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22, 197–210.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pegg, J. E. (1985). The effect of practice on the acquisition of teaching skills: A microteaching study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of New England, Armidale, Australia.

  • Percy, R. L. (1990). The effects of Teacher Effectiveness Training on the attitudes and behaviors of classroom teachers. Educational Research Quarterly, 14, 16–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pond, M. R., & Newman, I. (1988, April). Differential effects of wait-time on textually explicit and implicit responding: Interaction explanation. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 293 864)

  • Reitz, A. L., & Kerr, M. M. (1991). Training effective teachers for tomorrow's students: Issues and recommendations. Education and Treatment of Children, 14, 361–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ringer, V. M. J. (1973). The use of a “token helper” in the management of classroom behavior problems and in teacher training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 671–677.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, V., & Swanton, C. (1980). The generalization of behavioral teacher training. Review of Educational Research, 50, 486–498.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, S. M., Raines, F. B., Cervetti, M. J., & Dellow, D. A. (1980). Field experiences for teacher candidates: A comparison between tutorial and apprenticeship programs on student activities and attitudes. Journal of Teacher Education, 31(6), 57–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, M. R. & James, J. E. (1983). The modification of parent behavior: A review of generalization and maintenance. Behavior Modification, 7, 3–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saunders, W., Nielson, E., Gall, M. D., & Smith, G. (1975). The effects of variations in microteaching on prospective teachers' acquisition of questioning skills. Journal of Educational Research, 69, 3–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, I. S., Anderson, S. R., & Halle, J. W. (1989). Training teachers to use naturalistic time delay: Effects on teacher behavior and on the language use of students. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 14, 48–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selinske, J. E., Greer, R. D., & Lodhi, S. (1991). A functional analysis of the comprehensive application of behavior analysis to schooling. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 107–117.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sloat, K. C. M., Tharp, R. G., & Gallimore, R. (1977). The incremental effectiveness of classroom-based teacher-training techniques. Behavior Therapy, 8, 810–818.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speidel, G. E., & Tharp, R. G. (1978). Teacher-training workshop strategy: Instructions, discrimination training, modeling, guided practice, and video feedback. Behavior Therapy, 9, 735–739.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swift, J. N., & Gooding, C. T. (1983). Interaction of wait time, feedback and questioning on middle school science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20, 721–730.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taggart, A. (1988). The systematic development of teaching skills: A sequence of planned pedagogical experiences. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 8, 73–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J. D., & Adams, M. A. (1971). Problems in teacher use of selected behaviour modification techniques in the classroom. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 6, 151–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobin, K. (1986). Effects of teacher wait-time on discourse characteristics in mathematics and language arts classes. American Educational Research Journal, 23, 191–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Sijde, P. C. (1989). The effect of a brief teacher training on student achievement. Teaching and Teacher Education, 5, 303–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Houten, R., & Sullivan, K. (1975). Effects of an audio cueing system on the rate of teacher praise. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 197–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wetzel, R. J. (1970). Behavior modification techniques and the training of teacher's aides. Psychology in the Schools, 7, 325–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheldall, K., & Merrett, F. (1985). The behavioural approach to teaching package (BATPACK): Evolution and evaluation. Behaviour Change, 2, 21–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, O. R., Liberty, K. A., Haring, N. G., Billingsley, F. F., Boer, M., Burrage, A., Connors, R., Farman, R., Fedorchak, G., Leber, B. D., Liberty-Laylin, S., Miller, S., Opalski, C., Phifer, C., & Sessoms, I. (1988). Review and analysis of strategies for generalization. In N. G. Haring (Ed.), Generalization for students with severe handicaps: Strategies and solutions (pp. 15–51). Seattle: University of Washington Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolfolk, A. E., & Woolfolk, R. L. (1974). A contingency management technique for increasing student attention in a small group setting. Journal of School Psychology, 12, 204–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeany, R. H. (1977). The effects of model viewing with systematic strategy analysis on the science teaching styles of preservice teachers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 14, 209–222.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Rose, D.J., Church, R.J. Learning to Teach: The Acquisition and Maintenance of Teaching Skills. Journal of Behavioral Education 8, 5–35 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022860606825

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022860606825

Navigation