Abstract
Program by risk interactions were assessed to evaluate whether the long-term effects of two preventive interventions for children from divorced families were moderated by baseline levels of risk. Six-year prospective relations between childhood (ages 9–12) and adolescence (ages 15–19) were examined in 68 children who comprised the control group of a randomized trial. Analyses indicated that two childhood variables predicted multiple adolescent outcomes: environmental stressors and externalizing problems. A risk index composed of these 2 variables was highly predictive of internalizing and externalizing problems, competence, substance use, and mental disorder 6 years later. Analyses of the full sample (N=218) indicated that program effects were greater for children with higher risk scores and that the programs attenuated the relation between risk and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems, competence, and mental disorder.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Integrative guide for the 1991 CBCL/4-18, YSR, and TRF profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychology.
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Allen, J. P., & Philliber, S. (2001). Who benefits most from a broadly targeted prevention program? Differential efficacy across populations in the Teen Outreach program. Journal of Community Psychology, 29(6), 637-655.
Amato, P. R. (2001). Children of divorce in the 1990s: An update of the Amato and Keith (1991) meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 15(3), 355-370.
Amato, P. R., & Gilbreth, J. (1999). Nonresident fathers and children's well-being: A meta-analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 557-573.
Amato, P. R., & Keith, B. (1991). Parental divorce and the well-being of children: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 26-46.
Ayers, T. S., Sandler, I. N., West, S. G., & Roosa, M. W. (1996). A dispositional and situational assessment of children's coping: Testing alternative models of coping. Journal of Personality, 64, 923-958.
Barnes, H., & Olson, D. H. (1982). Parent–adolescent communication. In D. Olson, H. McCubbin, H. Barnes, A. Larsen, M. Muxen, & M. Wilson (Eds.), Family inventories (pp. 33-49). St. Paul, MN: Family Social SP0.
Brown, C. H. (1991). Comparison of mediational selected strategies and sequential designs for preventive trials: Comments on a proposal by Pillow et al. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19(6), 837-846.
Brown, C. H., & Liao, J. (1999). Principles for designing randomized preventive trials in mental health: An emerging developmental epidemiology paradigm. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 673-710.
Buchanan, C. M., Maccoby, E. E., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1991). Caught between parents: Adolescents' experience in divorced homes. Child Development, 62, 1008-1029.
Burbach, D. J., Farha, J. G., & Thorpe, J. S. (1986). Assessing depression in community samples of children using self-report inventories: Ethical considerations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14, 579-589.
Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1975). A temperament theory of personality development. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (1995). The continuity of maladaptive behavior: From description to understanding in the study of antisocial behavior. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental pscyhopathology (pp. 472-511). New York: Wiley.
Chase-Lansdale, L. P., Cherlin, A. J., & Kiernan, K. E. (1995). The long term effects of parental divorce on the mental health of young adults: A developmental perspective. Child Development, 66, 1614-1634.
Cicchetti, D., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2002). Editorial: Prevention and intervention science: Contributions to developmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 667-671.
Coiro, M. J., & Emery, R. E. (1998). Do marriage problems affect fathering more than mothering? A quantitative and qualitative review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1(1), 23-40.
Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2002). Predictor variables associated with positive Fast Track outcomes at the end of third grade. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30(1), 37-52.
Costello, E. J., Angold, A., & Keeler, G. P. (1999). Adolescent outcomes of childhood disorders: the consequences of severity and impairment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 121-128.
Demo, D. H., & Acock, A. C. (1996). Singlehood, marriage, and remarriage: The effects of family structure and family relationships on mothers' well-being. Journal of Family Issues, 17(3), 388-407.
Dohrenwend, B. P., Shrout, P. E., Egri, G., & Mendelsohn, F. S. (1980). Non-specific psychological distress and other dimensions of psychopathology. Archives of General Psychology, 39, 1229-1236.
Durlak, J. A., & Wells, A. M. (1997). Primary prevention mental health programs for children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25(2), 115-152.
Eckenrode, J., Zielinski, D., Smith, E., Marcynyszyn, L. A., Henderson, C. R., Kitzman, H., et al. (2001). Child maltreatment and the early onset of problem behaviors: Can a program of nurse home visitation break the link? Development and Psychopathology, 13, 873-890.
Epstein, S. (1983). Aggregation and beyond: Some basic issues on the prediction of behavior. Journal of Personality, 51, 360-392.
Farrington, D. P. (1991). Childhood aggression and adult violence: Early precursors and later-life outcomes. In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 189-197). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Forehand, R., Thomas, A. M., & Wierson, M. (1990). A mediational model of the impact of marital conflict on adolescent adjustment in intact and divorced families: The role of disrupted parenting. Child Development, 61, 1112-1123.
Forgatch, M. S., & DeGarmo, D. S. (1999). An effective prevention program for single mothers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 711-724.
Forgatch, M. S., Patterson, G. R., & Ray, J. A. (1996). Divorce and boys' adjustment problems: Two paths with a single model. In E. M. Hetherington & E. A. Blechman (Eds.), Stress, coping, and resiliency in children and families. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Forgatch, M. S., Patterson, G. R., & Skinner, M. L. (1988). A mediational model for the effect of divorce on antisocial behavior in boys. In E. M. Hetherington & J. D. Arasteh (Eds.), Impact of divorce: Single parenting, and stepparenting on children (pp. 135-154). HIllsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Garmezy, N., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (1984). The study of stress and competence in children: A building block for developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 97-111.
Goldsmith, H. H., & Rothbart, M. K. (1991). Contemporary instruments for assessing early temperament by questionnaire and in the laboratory. In J. Strelau & A. Angleitner (Eds.), Explorations in temperament: International perspectives on theory and measurement (pp. 249-272). New York: Plenum.
Grych, J. H., Seid, M., & Fincham, F. D. (1992). Assessing marital conflict from the child's perspective: The Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale. Child Development, 63, 558-572.
Guidubaldi, J., & Perry, J. D. (1985). Divorce and mental health sequelae for children: A two-year follow-up of a nationwide sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 531-537.
Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the self-perception profile of children (Revision of the Perceived Competence Scale for Children). Unpublished manuscript, University of Denver.
Hetherington, E. M. (1989). Coping with family transitions: Winners, losers, and survivors. Child Development, 60, 1-14.
Hetherington, E. M., Bridges, M., & Insabella, G. M. (1998). What matters? What does not? Five perspectives on the association between marital transitions and children's adjustment. American Psychologist, 53, 167-184.
Hetherington, E. M., Clingempeel, W. G., Anderson, E. R., Deal, J. E., Stanley Hagan, M., Hollier, E. A., et al. (1992). Coping with marital transitions: A family systems perspective. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 57(2–3, Serial No. 227), 1-242.
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M., & Cox, R. (1985). Long-term effects of divorce and remarriage on the adjustment of children. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 518-530.
Hipke, K. N., Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., & Braver, S. L. (2002). Predictors of children's intervention-induced resilience in a parenting program for divorced mothers. Family Relations, 51, 121-129.
Jensen, E. S., Boyce, W. T., & Hartnett, S. A. (1983). The Family Routines Inventory: Development and validation. Social Science Medicine, 17, 201-211.
Johnston, L. D., Bachman, J. G., & O'Malley, P. M. (1993). Monitoring the future: Questionnaire responses from the nation's high school seniors. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Survey Research Center.
Kazdin, A. E. (1995). Child, parent and family dysfunction as predictors of outcome in cognitive-behavioral treatment of antisocial children. Behaviour Research Therapy, 33(3), 271-281.
Kellam, S. G., & Rebok, G. W. (1992). Building developmental and etiological theory through epidemiologically based preventive intervention trials. In J. McCord & R. E. Tremblay (Eds.), Preventing antisocial behavior: Intervention from birth through adolescence (pp. 162-195). New York: Guilford.
Kellam, S. G., Rebok, G. W., Ialongo, N., & Mayer, L. S. (1994). The course and malleability of aggressive behavior from early first grade into middle school: Results of a developmental epidemiologically-based preventive trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 259-281.
Kovacs, M. (1981). Rating scales to assess depression in school-aged children. Acta Pacedopsychiatrica, 46, 305-315.
Kraemer, H. C., Wilson, T., Fairburn, C. G., & Agras, W. S. (2002). Mediators and moderators of treatment effects in randomized clinical trials. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 877-883.
Lengua, L. J., Sandler, I. N., West, S. G., Wolchik, S. A., & Curran, P. J. (1999). Emotionality and self-regulation, threat appraisal, and coping in children of divorce. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 15-37.
Lengua, L. J., West, S. G., & Sandler, I. N. (1998). Temperament as a predictor of symptomatology in children: Addressing contamination of measures. Child Development, 69, 164-181.
Lord, R. M., & Novick, M. R. (1968). Statistical theories of mental test scores, with contributions by Alan Birnbaum. Reading, MA: Addison–Wesley.
Lorenz, F. O., Simons, R. L., & Chao, W. (1996). Family structure and mother's depression. In R. L. Simons and Associates (Eds)., Understanding differences between divorced and intact families: Stress, interaction, and child outcomes (pp. 65-77). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Martinez, C. R., & Forgatch, M. S. (2001). Preventing problems with boys' noncompliance: Effects of a parent training intervention for divorcing mothers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(3), 416-428.
Mazur, E., Wolchik, S. A., & Sandler, I. N. (1992). Negative cognitive errors and positive illusions for negative divorce events: Predictors of children's psychological adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 523-542.
Neher, L. S., & Short, J. L. (1998). Risk and protective factors for children's substance use and antisocial behavior following divorce. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68, 154-161.
Olds, D. L., Eckenrode, J., Henderson, C. R., Kitzman, H., Powers, J., Cole, R., et al. (1997). Long-term effects of home visitation on maternal life course and child abuse and neglect. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(8), 637-643.
Oregon Social Learning Center. (1991). LIFT parent interview. Unpublished manual. Eugene, OR: Oregon Social Learning Center.
Patterson, G. R. (1986). Performance models for antisocial boys. American Psychologist, 41, 432-444.
Pearson, J. L., & Koretz, D. S. (2001). Opportunities in prevention research at NIMH: Integrating prevention with treatment research. Prevention and Treatment, 4, Article 18. Retrieved from http://www.journals.apa.org./prevention/volume14/pre0040018.html
Pedro-Carroll, J. L., & Cowen, E. L. (1985). The Children of Divorce Intervention Program: An investigation of the efficacy of a school-based prevention program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 603-611.
Pedro-Carroll, J. L., Sutton, J. L., & Wyman, P. A. (1999). A two-year followup evaluation of a preventive intervention for young children of divorce. School of Psychology Review, 28(3), 467-476.
Pillow, D. R., Sandler, I. N., Braver, S. L., Wolchik, S. A., & Gersten, J. C. (1991). Theory based screening for prevention: Focusing on mediating processes in children of divorce. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 809-836.
Price, R. H., Van Ryn, M., & Vinokur, A. D. (1992). Impact of a preventive job search intervention on the likelihood of depression among the unemployed. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33, 158-167.
Program for Prevention Research. (1985). The divorce adjustment project externalizing scale. Unpublished manual, Arizona State University.
Program for Prevention Research. (1992). New Beginnings Program documentation battery. Unpublished manual, Arizona State Univesity.
Program for Prevention Research. (2002). New Beginnings Follow-up project documentation battery. Unpublished manual, Arizona State University.
Reid, J. B., Eddy, J. M., Fetrow, R. A., & Stoolmiller, M. (1999). Description and immediate impacts of a preventive intervention for conduct problems. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 483-517.
Reynolds, C. R. (1982). Convergent and divergent validity of the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 42, 1205-1212.
Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. (1978). What I think and feel: A revised measure of children's manifest anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 6, 271-280.
Sandler, I. N., Tein, J. Y., Mehta, P., Wolchik, S. A., & Ayers, T. (2000). Coping efficacy and psychological problems of children of divorce. Child Development, 71, 1099-1118.
Sandler, I. N., Tein, J. Y., & West, S. G. (1994). Coping, stress, and the psychological symptoms of children of divorce: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Child Development, 65, 1744-1763.
Sandler, I. N., Wolchik, S. A., & Braver, S. L. (1988). The stressors of children's postdivorce environments. In S. Wolchik & P. Karoly (Eds.), Children of divorce: Empirical perspectives on adjustment. New York: Gardner.
Sandler, I. N., Wolchik, S. A., Davis, C. H., Haine, R. A., & Ayers, T. S. (2002). Correlational and experimental study of resilience for children of divorce and parentally-bereaved children. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 213-240). New York: Cambridge University PN0.
Saylor, C. F., Finch, A. J., Baskin, C. H., Furey, W., & Kelly, M. M. (1984). Construct validity for measures of childhood depression: Application of multi-trait-multimethod methodology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 977-985.
Schaefer, E. S. (1965). Children's report of parental behavior: An inventory. Child Development, 36, 413-424.
Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C., Dulcan, M., & Schwab-Stone, M. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): Description, differences from previous versions and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28-38.
Sheets, V., Sandler, I. N., & West, S. G. (1996). Appraisals of negative events by preadolescent children of divorce. Child Development, 67, 2166-2182.
Simons, R. L., Johnson, C., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (1998). A test of latent trait versus life-course perspectives on the stability of adolescent antisocial behavior. Criminology, 36(2), 217-243.
Simons, R. L., Whitbeck, L. B., Beaman, J., & Conger, R. D. (1994). The impact of mothers' parenting, involvement by nonresidential fathers, and parental conflict on the adjustment of adolescent children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 356-374.
Stanger, C., McConaughy, S. H., & Achenbach, T. M. (1992). Three-year course of behavioral/emotional problems in a national sample of 4–16-year olds: I I. Predictors of syndromes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 941-950.
Stolberg, A. L., & Garrison, K. M. (1985). Evaluating a primary prevention program for children of divorce. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13, 111-124.
Stolberg, A. L., & Mahler, J. (1994). Enhancing treatment gains in a school-based intervention for children of divorce through skill training, parental involvement, and transfer procedures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 147-156.
Stoolmiller, M., Eddy, J. M., & Reid, J. B. (2000). Detecting and describing preventive intervention effects in a universal school-based randomized trial targeting delinquent and violent behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(2), 296-306.
Summers, P., Forehand, R., Armistead, L., & Tannenbaum, L. (1998). Parental divorce during early adolescence in caucasian families: The role of family process variables in predicting the longterm consequences for early adult psychosocial adjustment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 327-336.
Teleki, J. K., Powell, J. A., & Dodder, R. A. (1982). Factor analysis of reports of parental behavior by children living in divorced and married families. The Journal of Psychology, 112, 295-302.
U.S. Census Bureau. (1998). Marital status and living arrangements: March 1998 (Update) (PPL–100). Atlanta, GA.
Webster-Stratton, C., Reid, J., & Hammond, M. (2001). Social skills and problem-solving training forchildren with early-onset conduct problems: Who benefits? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(7), 943-952.
Windle, M., & Lerner, R. M. (1986). Reassessing the dimensions of temperamental individuality across the life span: The Revised Dimensions of Temperament Survey (DOTS-R). Journal of Adolescent Research, 1, 213-229.
Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., Millsap, R. E., Plummer, B. A., Greene, S. M., Anderson, E. R., et al. (2002). Six-year follow-up of a randomized, controlled trial of preventive interventions for children of divorce. JAMA, 288(15), 1-8.
Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.-Y., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L., et al. (2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-based mother and mother–child programs for children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 843-856.
Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Westover, S., Sandler, I. N., Martin, A., Lustig, J., et al. (1993). The children of divorce parenting intervention: Outcome evaluation of an empirically based program. American Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 293-331.
Wolchik, S. A., Wilcox, K. L., Tein, J.-Y., & Sandler, I. N. (2000). Maternal acceptance and consistency of discipline as buffers of divorce stressors on children's psychological adjustment problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 87-102.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Dawson-McClure, S.R., Sandler, I.N., Wolchik, S.A. et al. Risk as a Moderator of the Effects of Prevention Programs for Children from Divorced Families: A Six-Year Longitudinal Study. J Abnorm Child Psychol 32, 175–190 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACP.0000019769.75578.79
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACP.0000019769.75578.79