Leaving-Home Patterns in Emerging Adults
The Impact of Earlier Parental Support and Developmental Task Progression
1This paper is part of a series on “Youth Development in Europe: Transitions and Identities” that will appear in the European Psychologist throughout 2008 and 2009. Taken together, the papers aim to make a conceptual contribution to the increasingly important area of youth development, especially within the context of an expanding Europe, by focusing on variations and changes in the transition to adulthood and emerging identities. The series will conclude with a summary by the organizers of the series, Katariina Salmela-Aro (University of Jyväskylä, Finland) and Ingrid Schoon (University of London, UK).
Abstract
In a longitudinal study on 93 participants, the relationships between leaving home, developmental task progression, and the amount of parental support were analyzed over a time span of 11 years. Three different leaving-home patterns emerged: on-time leavers, late leavers/returners, and those still residing with their parents at ages 21 to 25. Aspirations with respect to the attainment of developmental tasks specific to adolescence and emerging adulthood did not differ between individuals with different leaving-home patterns. Perceived developmental task progression during adolescence was influential, but the more recent developmental task progression during emerging adulthood was even more predictive for different leaving-home outcomes. The amounts of fathers’ and mothers’ support during adolescence were found to be important predictors of the timing of leaving home.
References
1995). Psychological separation of older adolescents and emerging adults from their parents: An investigation of gender differences. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73, 542–546.
(1997). From adolescent to emerging adult: A prospective study of parent-child relations during the transition to adulthood. Journal of the Marriage and the Family, 59, 670–688.
(2000). Emerging adulthood. A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480.
(1989). Transition to the empty nest. In , Aging and the family (pp. 15–32). Lexington, MD: Lexington Books.
(1973). Attachment and loss. Vol. 2: Separation: Anxiety and anger. London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psychoanalysis.
(1989). The cluttered nest: The living arrangements of emerging Canadian adults. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 14, 461–477.
(1987). The development of companionship and intimacy. Child Development, 58, 1101–1113.
(2000). Social change and the sequencing of developmental transitions. In , Negotiating adolescence in times of social change (pp. 89–103). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
(1997). Still in the nest. Delayed home-leaving in Europe and the United States. Journal of Family Issues, 18, 572–575.
(1999). From systems to networks: The reconstruction of youth transitions in Europe. In , From education to work: Cross-national perspectives (pp. 298–318). New York: Cambridge University Press.
(1999). Family structure differences in the timing of leaving home: Exploring mediating factors. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9, 367–393.
(1997). Youth residential independence and autonomy: A comparative study. Journal of Family Issues, 18, 576–606.
(1993). Residential setting and parent-adolescent relationships during the college years. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 22, 171–189.
(1999). The development of romantic relationships in adolescence. New York: Cambridge University Press.
(1985). Children’s perception of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1016–1024.
(1997). Leaving home and family relations in France. Journal of Family Issues, 18, 645–670.
(1995). The “intergenerational stake” hypothesis revisited: Parent-child differences in perceptions of relationships 20 years later. In , Adult intergenerational relations (pp. 227–296). New York: Springer.
(1997). Recent changes in US emerging adults living arrangements in a comparative perspective. Journal of Family Issues, 18, 708–724.
(1989). Adult children in the household: Who benefits?. Lifestyles, 10, 293–309.
(1953). Developmental tasks and education. New York: Longmans, Green, & Co.
(1994). Parental support and psychological adjustment during the transition to young adulthood in a college sample. Journal of Family Psychology, 8, 215–223.
(1995). Parenting adolescents. In , Handbook of parenting. Vol. 1: Children and parenting (pp. 91–118). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
(1999). Predictors of young adults raised in Germany: A replication of a 1991 study. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 505–515.
(1999). Wer sind die Spätauszieher? Eine empirische Untersuchung über das Alter bei der Haushaltsgründung [
(Who are the late leavers? An empirical study of age of establishing household ]. Zeitschrift für Bevölkerungswissenschaft, 4, 425–448.1991). How fathers respond when their youth leave and return home. Prevention in Human Services, 9, 223–234.
(1997). Still in the nest: The family and emerging adults in Germany. Journal of Family Issues, 18, 671–689.
(2005). Distinguishing features of emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 242–262.
(1996). Adolescent-parent relationships and leaving home in emerging adulthood. Child Development, 71, 39–52.
(2002). Familialer Wandel in der Auszugsphase: Hintergründe der verzögerten Ablösung [
(Family change in the leaving home phase: Causes of delayed separation ]. In , Klinische Entwicklungspsychologie der Familie (pp. 206–219). Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.2001). Leaving home, attending college, partnership, and parenthood: The role of life transition events in leisure pattern stability from adolescence to emerging adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30, 197–223.
(2004). Salient and emerging developmental tasks in the transition to adulthood. Child Development, 75, 123–133.
(1997). The nestlings. Why young adults stay at home longer: The Italian case. Journal of Family Issues, 18, 627–644.
(1999). The Triple P – Positive parenting program. Child and Family Psychology Review, 2, 71–90.
(1997). Young adult families. An evolutionary slowdown or a breakdown in the generational transitions. Journal of Family Issues, 18, 608–626.
(2004). Adolescents’ attachment representations and developmental tasks in emerging adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 40, 430–444.
(1998). Chronic disease and perceived developmental progression in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1073–1084.
(2003). Testing theories of romantic development from adolescence to emerging adulthood: Evidence of a developmental sequence. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 519–531.
(2006). Leaving home or still in the nest? Parent-child relationships and psychological health as predictors of different leaving-home patterns. Developmental Psychology, 42, 864–876.
(2008). Does successful attainment of developmental tasks lead to happiness and success in later developmental tasks? A test of Havighurst’s (1948) theses. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 33–52.
(1998). A time to leave home and a time never to return? Age constraints around the living arrangements of emerging adults. Social Forces, 76, 1373–1400.
(1997). Fathers and adolescents: Developmental and clinical perspectives. London: Routledge.
(1996). Leaving the parental home: Predictors for emerging adults raised in former East and West Germany. In , Leaving home: Understanding the transition to adulthood (pp. 148–161). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
(1990). Psychological well-being of parents with early adolescent children. Developmental Psychology, 26, 658–666.
(1991). Fachserie Gesundheitswesen, 12, Reihe 3 [
(Special Series Nr. 12/3: Health Care Services ]. Bonn, Germany: Statistisches Bundesamt.2003). Predicting emerging adults’ return to the nest. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan.
(1995). Parent-child relationships during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Family Issues, 16, 538–564.
(1994). Coresidence and leaving home: Young adults and their parents. Annual Review of Sociology, 20, 81–102.
(