Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

Assessment and maintenance of competence in urology

Abstract

Urology is becoming increasingly reliant on inter-disciplinary collaboration. As a result of this interaction and developments in technology, the existing system of training, certification and recertification needs revision. The skill-set required of urologists has become multidimensional. As the field of urology continues to evolve, the recognition of the need for objective and efficient certification for trainees and a recertification program for specialists has increased. Training programs need to provide a curriculum focused on knowledge, communication, cognitive and technical skills, with the inclusion of simulation-based training. For specialists, the benefits of teaching through mentorship should be evaluated, and outcome-based assessment of patient morbidity and mortality needs to be further developed and validated.

Key Points

  • A competent urologist should be able to demonstrate excellence in patient safety, professionalism, team working, knowledge and technical skills

  • Certification and recertification are the processes within the medical profession that aim to ensure quality of patient care

  • Objective assessment of competence and continuing medical education should be closely linked during certification and recertification

  • Further research is required to identify and develop tools with the highest level of validity and reliability for training and assessment of technical and nontechnical skills

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Murray, A. Redesigning urological training and the consultant urologist. Ann. R. Coll. Surg. Engl. (Suppl.) 85, 314–317 (2003).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Risser, D. T. et al. The potential for improved teamwork to reduce medical errors in the emergency department: the MedTeams Research Consortium. Ann. Emerg. Med. 34, 373–383 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Reznick, R. K. & MacRae, H. Teaching surgical skills—changes in the wind. N. Engl. J. Med. 355, 2664–2669 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Kohn, L. T., Corrigan, J. M. & Donaldson, M. S. To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System (Institute of Medicine, 1999).

    Google Scholar 

  5. The Bristol Royal Infirmary Inquiry. Learning from Bristol: the report of the public inquiry into children's heart surgery at the Bristol Royal Infirmary 1984–1995 [online], (2001).

  6. American Board of Medical Specialties. ABMS Maintenance of Certification [online], (2009).

  7. CanMEDS. The CanMEDS 2005 Physician Competency Framework [online], (2005).

  8. Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. Revalidation [online], (2009).

  9. Merkur, S., Mossialos, E., Long, M. & McKee, M. Physician revalidation in Europe. Clin. Med. 8, 371–376 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Epstein, R. M. & Hundert, E. M. Defining and assessing professional competence. JAMA 287, 226–235 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Prystowsky, J. B., Bordage, G. & Feinglass, J. M. Patient outcomes for segmental colon resection according to surgeon's training, certification and experience. Surgery 132, 663–670 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Kohatsu, N. D., Gould, D. & Ross, L. K. Characteristics associated with physician discipline: a case–control study. Arch. Intern. Med. 164, 653–658 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Royal Australasian College of Surgeons. Surgical Competence and Performance [online], (2008).

  14. Ahmed, K., Ashrafian, H., Hanna, G. B., Darzi, A. & Athanasiou, T. Assessment of specialists in cardiovascular practice. Nat. Rev. Cardiol. 6, 659–667 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Stewart, M. A. Effective physician–patient communication and health outcomes: a review. CMAJ 152, 1423–1433 (1995).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Satava, R. M., Gallagher, A. G. & Pellegrini, C. A. Surgical competence and surgical proficiency: definitions, taxonomy, and metrics. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 196, 933–937 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. GMC. Good Medical Practice [online], (2009).

  18. National Patient Safety Agency. Junior Doctor [online], (2010).

  19. Haynes, A. B. et al. A surgical safety checklist to reduce morbidity and mortality in a global population. N. Engl. J. Med. 360, 491–499 (2009).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Makary, M. A. et al. Operating room teamwork among physicians and nurses: teamwork in the eye of the beholder. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 202, 746–752 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Vincent, C., Moorthy, K., Sarker, S. K., Chang, A. & Darzi, A. W. Systems approaches to surgical quality and safety: from concept to measurement. Ann. Surg. 239, 475–482 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. Sentinel Event Statistics [online], (2003).

  23. Brewin, J. et al. Face, content and construct validation of the first virtual reality laparoscopic nephrectomy simulator. BJU Int. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2009.09193.x.

  24. Joyce, A. & Fawcett, D. Medical Revalidation. BAUS Strategy for Recertification [online], (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  25. Buyske, J. For the protection of the public and the good of the specialty: maintenance of certification. Arch. Surg. 144, 101–103 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Archer, J., Norcini, J., Southgate, L., Heard, S. & Davies, H. Mini-PAT (peer assessment tool): a valid component of a national assessment programme in the UK? Adv. Health Sci. Educ. Theory Pract. 13, 181–192 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Nomura, H. Developing the “why” facet of medical professionalism. Kaohsiung J. Med. Sci. 24, 31–34 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Simpson, M. et al. Doctor–patient communication: the Toronto consensus statement. BMJ 303, 1385–1387 (1991).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Nicholson, D. T., Chalk, C., Funnell, W. R. & Daniel, S. J. Can virtual reality improve anatomy education? A randomised controlled study of a computer-generated three-dimensional anatomical ear model. Med. Educ. 40, 1081–1087 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Undre, S., Healey, A. N., Darzi, A. & Vincent, C. A. Observational assessment of surgical teamwork: a feasibility study. World J. Surg. 30, 1774–1783 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Thomas, E. J. et al. Teamwork and quality during neonatal care in the delivery room. J. Perinatol. 26, 163–169 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Miller, L. A. Patient safety and teamwork in perinatal care: resources for clinicians. J. Perinat. Neonatal Nurs. 19, 46–51 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Morey, J. C. et al. Error reduction and performance improvement in the emergency department through formal teamwork training: evaluation results of the MedTeams project. Health Serv. Res. 37, 1553–1581 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Sherwood, G., Thomas, E., Bennett, D. S. & Lewis, P. A teamwork model to promote patient safety in critical care. Crit. Care Nurs. Clin. North Am. 14, 333–340 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Undre, S., Sevdalis, N., Healey, A. N., Darzi, S. A. & Vincent, C. A. Teamwork in the operating theater: cohesion or confusion? J. Eval. Clin. Pract. 12, 182–189 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Flin, R., Yule, S., McKenzie, L., Paterson-Brown, S. & Maran, N. Attitudes to teamwork and safety in the operating theatre. Surgeon 4, 145–151 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Flin, R., Fletcher, G., McGeorge, P., Sutherland, A. & Patey, R. Anaesthetists' attitudes to teamwork and safety. Anesthesia 58, 233–242 (2003).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Rao, A. R., Hudd, C., Laniado, M., Motiwala, H. & Karim, O. M. Left or right, get it right [abstract P132]. BJU Int. 95 (Suppl. 5), 96 (2005).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Coxon, J. P., Pattison, S. H., Parks, J. W., Stevenson, P. K. & Kirby, R. S. Reducing human error in urology: lessons from aviation. BJU Int. 91, 1–3 (2003).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Flin, R. et al. Teaching surgeons about non-technical skills. Surgeon 5, 86–89 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Sevdalis, N. et al. Reliability of a revised NOTECHS scale for use in surgical teams. Am. J. Surg. 196, 184–190 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Powers, K. A. et al. Simulated laparoscopic operating room crisis: an approach to enhance the surgical team performance. Surg. Endosc. 22, 885–900 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Davies, H. A. & Archer, J. C. Multi source feedback development and practical aspects. Clin. Teacher 2, 77–81 (2005).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Undre, S., Sevdalis, N., Healey, A. N., Darzi, A. & Vincent, C. A. Observational teamwork assessment for surgery (OTAS): refinement and application in urological surgery. World J. Surg. 31, 1373–1381 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Kurtz, S., Silverman, J., Benson, J. & Draper, J. Marrying content and process in clinical method teaching: enhancing the Calgary-Cambridge guides. Acad. Med. 78, 802–809 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Makoul, G. Essential elements of communication in medical encounters: the Kalamazoo consensus statement. Acad. Med. 76, 390–393 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Violato, C., Lockyer, J. & Fidler, H. Multisource feedback: a method of assessing surgical practice. BMJ 326, 546–548 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Watters, D. A., Green, A. J. & van Rij, A. Guidelines for surgical audit in Australia and New Zealand. ANZ J. Surg. 76, 78–83 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Crossley, J. et al. Can a district hospital assess its doctors for re-licensure? Med. Educ. 42, 359–363 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Dickinson, I., Watters, D., Graham, I., Montgomery, P. & Collins, J. Guide to the assessment of competence and performance in practising surgeons. ANZ J. Surg. 79, 198–204 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Marinopoulos, S. S. et al. Effectiveness of continuing medical education. Evid. Rep. Technol. Assess. (Full Rep.) 149, 1–69 (2007).

    Google Scholar 

  52. Reznick, R., Regehr, G., MacRae, H., Martin, J. & McCulloch, W. Testing technical skill via an innovative “bench station” examination. Am. J. Surg. 173, 226–230 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Yap, C. H., Colson, M. E. & Watters, D. A. Cumulative sum techniques for surgeons: a brief review. ANZ J. Surg. 77, 583–586 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Royal College of Surgeons. Specialty Programmes: Urology [online], (2010).

  55. Baverstock, R. J., MacNeily, A. E. & Cole, G. The American Urological Association In-Service Examination: performance correlates with Canadian and American specialty examinations. J. Urol. 170, 527–529 (2003).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Rassweiler, J., Klein, J., Teber, D., Schulze, M. & Frede, T. Mechanical simulators for training for laparoscopic surgery in urology. J. Endourol. 21, 252–262 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Moorthy, K., Munz, Y., Sarker, S. K. & Darzi, A. Objective assessment of technical skills in surgery. BMJ 327, 1032–1037 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Chou, D. S., Abdelshehid, C., Clayman, R. V. & McDougall, E. M. Comparison of results of virtual-reality simulator and training model for basic ureteroscopy training. J. Endourol. 20, 266–271 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Watterson, J. D., Beiko, D. T., Kuan, J. K. & Denstedt, J. D. Randomized prospective blinded study validating acquistion of ureteroscopy skills using computer based virtual reality endourological simulator. J. Urol. 168, 1928–1932 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Knudsen, B. E. et al. A randomized, controlled, prospective study validating the acquisition of percutaneous renal collecting system access skills using a computer based hybrid virtual reality surgical simulator: phase I. J. Urol. 176, 2173–2178 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Aggarwal, R., Grantcharov, T., Moorthy, K., Milland, T. & Darzi, A. Toward feasible, valid, and reliable video-based assessments of technical surgical skills in the operating room. Ann. Surg. 247, 372–379 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Sambunjak, D., Straus, S. E. & Marusic, A. Mentoring in academic medicine: a systematic review. JAMA 296, 1103–1115 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Shah, J. & Darzi, A. Surgical skills assessment: an ongoing debate. BJU Int. 88, 655–660 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Martin, J. A. et al. Objective structured assessment of technical skill (OSATS) for surgical residents. Br. J. Surg. 84, 273–278 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Beard, J. D., Choksy, S. & Khan, S. Assessment of operative competence during carotid endarterectomy. Br. J. Surg. 94, 726–730 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Datta, V., Mackay, S., Mandalia, M. & Darzi, A. The use of electromagnetic motion tracking analysis to objectively measure open surgical skill in the laboratory-based model. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 193, 479–485 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Fraser, S. A. et al. Evaluating laparoscopic skills: setting the pass/fail score for the MISTELS system. Surg. Endosc. 17, 964–967 (2003).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Katz, R. et al. Skill assessment of urological laparoscopic surgeons: can criterion levels of surgical performance be determined using the pelvic box trainer? Eur. Urol. 47, 482–487 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Brehmer, M. & Tolley, D. Validation of a bench model for endoscopic surgery in the upper urinary tract. Eur. Urol. 42, 175–180 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Royal Australasian College of Surgeons. Surgical Competence and Performance [online], (2008).

  71. BAUS. British Association of Urological Surgeons. Data & Audit Project [online], (2009).

  72. Collins, J. P., Civil, I. D., Sugrue, M., Balogh, Z. & Chehade, M. J. Surgical education and training in Australia and New Zealand. World J. Surg. 32, 2138–2144 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. van der Vleuten, C. P. M. The assessment of professional competence: developments, research and practical implications. Adv. Health Sci. Educ. Theory Pract. 1, 41–67 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Ahmed, K. et al. Role of virtual reality simulation in teaching and assessing technical skills in endovascular intervention. J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol. 21, 55–66 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Allen, I. Doctors crossing borders: Europe's new reality. CMAJ 180, 158–161 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. The European Parliament and Council of the European Union. Directive 2004/38/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council: of 29 April 2004 [online], (2004).

  77. Watterson, J. D. & Denstedt, J. D. Ureteroscopy and cystoscopy simulation in urology. J. Endourol. 21, 263–269 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Wong, J. A. & Matsumoto, E. D. Primer: cognitive motor learning for teaching surgical skill—how are surgical skills taught and assessed? Nat. Clin. Pract. Urol. 5, 47–54 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Sweet, R. M. Review of trainers for transurethral resection of the prostate skills. J. Endourol. 21, 280–284 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Hruby, G. W. et al. The EZ Trainer: validation of a portable and inexpensive simulator for training basic laparoscopic skills. J. Urol. 179, 662–666 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Zhang, Y. et al. Novel biologic model for percutaneous renal surgery learning and training in the laboratory. Urology 72, 513–516 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Matsumoto, E. D., Hamstra, S. J., Radomski, S. B. & Cusimano, M. D. A novel approach to endourological training: training at the Surgical Skills Center. J. Urol. 166, 1261–1266 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Shah, J., Munz, Y., Manson, J., Moorthy, K. & Darzi, A. Objective assessment of small bowel anastomosis skill in trainee general surgeons and urologists. World J. Surg. 30, 248–251 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Brehmer, M. & Swartz, R. Training on bench models improves dexterity in ureteroscopy. Eur. Urol. 48, 458–463 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Yang, R. M. & Bellman, G. C. Laparoscopic urethrovesical anastomosis: a model to assess surgical competency. J. Endourol. 20, 679–682 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Grober, E. D. et al. Laboratory based training in urological microsurgery with bench model simulators: a randomized controlled trial evaluating the durability of technical skill. J. Urol. 172, 378–381 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Chatterjee, S., Radomski, S. B. & Matsumoto, E. D. Durability of endourologic skills: two-year follow-up study. J. Endourol. 21, 843–846 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Traxer, O. et al. The impact of intense laparoscopic skills training on the operative performance of urology residents. J. Urol. 166, 1658–1661 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Subramonian, K., DeSylva, S., Bishai, P., Thompson, P. & Muir, G. Acquiring surgical skills: a comparative study of open versus laparoscopic surgery. Eur. Urol. 45, 346–351 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Ogan, K. et al. Virtual ureteroscopy predicts ureteroscopic proficiency of medical students on a cadaver. J. Urol. 172, 667–671 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Matsumoto, E. D., Pace, K. T. & D'A Honey, R. J. Virtual reality ureteroscopy simulator as a valid tool for assessing endourological skills. Int. J. Urol. 13, 896–901 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Jacomides, L., Ogan, K., Cadeddu, J. A. & Pearle, M. S. Use of a virtual reality simulator for ureteroscopy training. J. Urol. 171, 320–323 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Sweet, R., Kowalewski, T., Oppenheimer, P., Weghorst, S. & Satava, R. Face, content and construct validity of the University of Washington virtual reality transurethral prostate resection trainer. J. Urol. 172, 1953–1957 (2004).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Reich, O. et al. High-level virtual reality simulator for endourologic procedures of lower urinary tract. Urology 67, 1144–1148 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Matsumoto, E. D. et al. Assessment of basic human performance resources predicts performance of ureteroscopy. Am. J. Surg. 191, 817–820 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Knoll, T., Trojan, L., Haecker, A., Alken, P. & Michel, M. S. Validation of computer-based training in ureterorenoscopy. BJU Int. 95, 1276–1279 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Shah, J., Montgomery, B., Langley, S. & Darzi, A. Validation of a flexible cystoscopy course. BJU Int. 90, 833–835 (2002).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

A. Darzi and T. Athanasiou acknowledge their role in the Revalidation Project, which is funded by the UK General Medical Council and the Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. This article reflects these authors' views only, based on their research conducted at Imperial College London, UK. P. Dasgupta acknowledges financial research support from the Department of Health via the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) comprehensive Biomedical Research Center award to Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust in partnership with King's College London and King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kamran Ahmed.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ahmed, K., Jawad, M., Dasgupta, P. et al. Assessment and maintenance of competence in urology. Nat Rev Urol 7, 403–413 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrurol.2010.81

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrurol.2010.81

This article is cited by

Search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing