Abstract
Background: Trace elements (TEs) are ubiquitous and their potential interest for human health has been constantly expanding. Biological monitoring is generally considered to be a useful tool to assess human exposure to chemical agents in risk assessment both at occupational and environmental levels. However, the knowledge of accurate reference values, which may vary across countries or regions, is a prerequisite for correct interpretation of biomonitoring data. This study aimed at determining the reference distribution and the upper reference limit for 26 TEs (Al, As, Sb, Ba, Be, Bi, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, In, Li, Mn, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pd, Pt, Pb, Se, Te, Tl, Sn, U, V, Zn) in the urine of the general adult population residing in Belgium.
Methods: In total, 1022 adults not occupationally or extra-occupationally (mainly via hobbies, drugs) exposed to these TEs were recruited by occupational physicians and toxicologists according to an a priori selection procedure. Non-fasting spot urine samples were analyzed for 460 males and 541 females by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Careful control was applied during collection, handling and analyses of the samples to avoid any contamination.
Results: Globally, the results indicate that the exposure levels of the Belgian population to these TEs are low and grossly similar to those recently published by other national surveys.
Conclusions: These new reference values and upper reference limits will be useful for future occupational and/or environmental surveys.
The authors wish to thank Francis Desmedt and Marleen Kestens (LTAP) for skillful pre- analytical handling of the samples.
Conflict of interest statement
Authors’ conflict of interest disclosure: The authors stated that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. Research funding played no role in thestudy design; in the collection, analysis, and interpretationof data; in the writing of the report; or in the decision tosubmit the report for publication.
Research funding: Part of this study was performed with the financial support of CESI (Occupational Health Service, Brussels, Belgium).
Employment or leadership: None declared.
Honorarium: None declared.
References
1. Solberg HE. Approved recommendation (1987) on the theory of reference values. Part 5. Statistical treatment of collected reference values. Determination of reference limits. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1987;25:645–56.10.1016/0009-8981(87)90151-3Search in Google Scholar
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Fourth national report on human exposure to environmental chemicals, updated tables, February 2012. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/. Accessed June, 2012.Search in Google Scholar
3. Health Canada. Report on human biomonitoring of environmental chemicals in Canada. Results of the Canadian Health Measures Survey Cycle 1 (2007–2009). August 2010. Available from: http://www.healthcanada.gc.ca. Accessed June, 2012.Search in Google Scholar
4. Schulz C, Conrad A, Becker K, Kolossa-Gehring M, Seiwert M, Seifert B. Twenty years of the German Environmental Survey (GerES): human biomonitoring – temporal and spatial (West Germany/East Germany) differences in population exposure. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2007;210:271–97.http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000246907000010&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f310.1016/j.ijheh.2007.01.034Search in Google Scholar
5. Health and Environmental Hygiene. German Environmental Survey 1998 (GerES III). Results. Available from: http://www.umweltbundesamt.de/gesundheit-e/survey/. Updated 11 January, 2006. Accessed June, 2012.Search in Google Scholar
6. Fréry N, Saoudi A, Garnier R, Zeghnoun A, Falq G. Exposition de la population française aux substances chimiques de l’environnement. Saint-Maurice: Institut de Veille Sanitaire, 2011:151.Search in Google Scholar
7. Cornelis R, Sabbioni E, Van der Venne MT. Trace element reference values in tissues from inhabitants of the European Community. VII. Review of trace elements in blood, serum and urine of the Belgian population and critical evaluation of their possible use as reference values. Sci Total Environ 1994;158:191–226.10.1016/0048-9697(94)90058-2Search in Google Scholar
8. White MA, Sabbioni E. Trace element reference values in tissues from inhabitants of the European Union. X. A study of 13 elements in blood and urine of a United Kingdom population. Sci Total Environ 1998;216:253–70.10.1016/S0048-9697(98)00156-9Search in Google Scholar
9. Minoia C, Sabbioni E, Apostoli P, Pietra R, Pozzoli L, Gallorini M, et al. Trace element reference values in tissues from inhabitants of the European Community. I. A study of 46 elements in urine, blood and serum of Italian subjects. Sci Total Environ 1990;95:89–105.10.1016/0048-9697(90)90055-YSearch in Google Scholar PubMed
10. CLSI/IFCC Guideline C28‐A3. Defining, establishing, and verifying reference intervals in the clinical laboratory; Approved Guideline, 3rd ed. Wayne, PA: CLSI, 2008.Search in Google Scholar
11. Göen T, Schaller KH, Drexler H. Biological reference values for chemical compounds in the work area (BARs): an approach for evaluating biomonitoring data. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2012;85:571–8.10.1007/s00420-011-0699-3http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000305131300011&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f3Search in Google Scholar PubMed
12. Cornelis R, Heinzow B, Herber RF, Christensen JM, Poulsen OM, Sabbioni E, et al. Sample collection guidelines for trace elements in blood and urine. IUPAC Commission of Toxicology. J Trace Elem Med Biol 1996;10:103–27.10.1016/S0946-672X(96)80018-6Search in Google Scholar
13. Quebec Multielement External Quality Assessment Scheme (QMEQAS) – Centre de Toxicologie – Institut National de Santé Publique Québec. Round 2011–03. 012.02.28.Search in Google Scholar
14. Batista B, Rodrigues J, Tormen L, Curtius A, Barbosa F. Reference concentrations for trace elements in urine for the Brazilian population based on q-ICP-MS with a simple dilute-and-shoot procedure. J Braz Chem Soc 2009;20:1406–13.http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000271226900004&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f310.1590/S0103-50532009000800004Search in Google Scholar
15. Finnish Institute of Occupational Health (FIOH). Biomonitoring of exposure to chemicals. Guideline for specimen collection 2011–2012. Available from: http://www.ttl.fi/en/work_environment/biomonitoring/Documents/guideline_for_specimen_collection.pdf. Accessed June, 2012.Search in Google Scholar
16. Feldmann J, Krupp EM. Critical review or scientific opinion paper: Arsenosugars — a class of benign arsenic species or justification for developing partly speciated arsenic fractionation in foodstuffs? Anal Bioanal Chem 2011;399:1735–41.http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000286599300002&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f310.1007/s00216-010-4303-6Search in Google Scholar PubMed
17. Baeyens W, Yue G, De Galan S, Maaike B, Van Larebeke N, Leermakers M. Dietary exposure to total and toxic arsenic in Belgium: importance of arsenic speciation in North Sea fish. Mol Nutr Food Res 2009;53:558–65.10.1002/mnfr.200700533http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000266308600005&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f3Search in Google Scholar PubMed
18. Caldwell K, Jones R, Verdon C, Jarrett J, Caudill S, Osterloh J. Levels of urinary total and speciated arsenic in the US population: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2004. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2009;19:59–68.http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000261779400005&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f310.1038/jes.2008.32Search in Google Scholar
19. Choi BS, Choi SJ, Kim DW, Huang M, Kim NY, Park KS, et al. Effects of repeated seafood consumption on urinary excretion of arsenic species by volunteers. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 2010;58:222–9.10.1007/s00244-009-9333-8http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000273665000024&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f3Search in Google Scholar PubMed
20. Newcombe C, Raab A, Williams PN, Deacon C, Haris PI, Meharg AA, et al. Accumulation or production of arsenobetaine in humans? J Environ Monit 2010;12:832–7.10.1039/b921588cSearch in Google Scholar
21. Raml R, Raber G, Rumpler A, Bauernhofer T, Goessler W, Francesconi KA. Individual variability in the human metabolism of an arsenic-containing carbohydrate, 2’,3’-dihydroxypropyl 5-deoxy-5-dimethylarsinoyl-beta-D-riboside, a naturally occurring arsenical in seafood. Chem Res Toxicol 2009;22:1534–40.http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000269892600008&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f310.1021/tx900158hSearch in Google Scholar PubMed
22. Heinrich-Ramm R, Mindt-Prüfert S, Szadkowski D. Arsenic species excretion in a group of persons in northern Germany – contribution to the evaluation of reference values. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2001;203:475–7.10.1078/1438-4639-00060Search in Google Scholar
23. Navas-Acien A, Francesconi KA, Silbergeld EK, Guallar E. Seafood intake and urine concentrations of total arsenic, dimethylarsinate and arsenobetaine in the US population. Environ Res 2011;111:110–8.http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000286715300016&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f310.1016/j.envres.2010.10.009Search in Google Scholar
24. Lauwerys R, Bernard A, Buchet JP, Roels H, Bruaux P, Claeys F, et al. Does environmental exposure to cadmium represent a health risk? Conclusions from the Cadmibel study. Acta Clin Belg 1991;46:219–25.10.1080/17843286.1991.11718168Search in Google Scholar PubMed
25. Sartor FA, Rondia DJ, Claeys FD, Staessen JA, Lauwerys RR, Bernard AM, et al. Impact of environmental cadmium pollution on cadmium exposure and body burden. Arch Environ Health 1992;47:347–53.10.1080/00039896.1992.9938373Search in Google Scholar PubMed
26. Buchet JP, Staessen J, Roels H, Lauwerys R, Fagard R. Geographical and temporal differences in the urinary excretion of inorganic arsenic: a Belgian population study. Occup Environ Med 1996;53:320–7.10.1136/oem.53.5.320Search in Google Scholar PubMed
27. De Coster S, Koppen G, Bracke M, Schroijen C, Den Hond E, Nelen V, et al. Pollutant effects on genotoxic parameters and tumor-associated protein levels in adults: a cross sectional study. Environ Health 2008;7:26. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-7-26. Available at: http://www.ehjournal.net/content/7/1/26.http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000257560300001&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f310.1186/1476-069X-7-26.Availableat:http://www.ehjournal.net/content/7/1/26Search in Google Scholar PubMed
28. Nordberg G, Jin T, Bernard A, Fierens S, Buchet JP, Ye T, et al. Low bone density and renal dysfunction following environmental cadmium exposure in China. Ambio 2002;31:478–81.10.1579/0044-7447-31.6.478Search in Google Scholar PubMed
29. Nordberg GF, Jin T, Wu X, Lu J, Chen L, Lei L, et al. Prevalence of kidney dysfunction in humans – relationship to cadmium dose, metallothionein, immunological and metabolic factors. Biochimie 2009;91:1282–5.http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000270636500013&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f310.1016/j.biochi.2009.06.014Search in Google Scholar PubMed
30. Järup L, Akesson A. Current status of cadmium as an environmental health problem. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2009;238:201–18.http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000268147600003&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f3Search in Google Scholar
31. Engström A, Michaëlsson K, Suwazono Y, Wolk A, Vahter M, Akesson A. Long-term cadmium exposure and the association with bone mineral density and fractures in a population-based study among women. J Bone Miner Res 2011;26:486–95.10.1002/jbmr.224Search in Google Scholar PubMed
32. Satarug S, Garrett SH, Sens MA, Sens DA. Cadmium, environmental exposure, and health outcomes. Environ Health Perspect 210;118:182–90.http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=PARTNER_APP&SrcAuth=LinksAMR&KeyUT=000274482400016&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=ALL_WOS&UsrCustomerID=b7bc2757938ac7a7a821505f8243d9f310.1289/ehp.0901234Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
33. Lauwerys R, Hoet P. Industrial chemical exposure – guidelines for biological monitoring, 3rd ed. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers, 2001.10.1201/9781482293838Search in Google Scholar
34. O’Brien E. Chronology of leaded gasoline – leaded petrol history. The LEAD Group Inc. pp 19. 23 December 2011. Available from: http://www.lead.org.au/Chronology-Making_Leaded_Petrol_History.pdf. Accessed June, 2012.Search in Google Scholar
©2013 by Walter de Gruyter Berlin Boston
