Summary
As new classes of antimicrobial drugs have become available, and new uses found for older drugs, pharmacokinetic drug interactions with antimicrobials have become more common. Macrolides, fluoroquinolones, rifamycins, azoles and other agents can interact adversely with commonly used drugs, usually by altering their hepatic metabolism. The mechanisms by which antimicrobial agents alter the biotransformation of other drugs is increasingly understood to reflect inhibition or induction of specific cytochrome P450 enzymes.
Macrolides inhibit cytochrome P450IIIA4 (CYP3A4), which appears to be the most common metabolic enzyme in the human liver and is involved in the metabolism of many drugs, including cyclosporin, warfarin and terfenadine. Some quinolones preferentially inhibit CYP1A2, which is partially responsible for methylxanthine metabolism. Azoles appear to be broad spectrum inhibitors of cytochromes P450. Within each of these antibiotic classes, there is a rank order of inhibitory potency towards specific cytochrome P450 enzymes. By contrast, rifampicin (rifampin) and rifabutin induce several cytochromes P450, including CYP3A4, and hence can enhance the metabolism of many other drugs.
By using in vitro preparations of human enzymes it is increasingly possible to predict those antibiotics that will adversely affect the metabolism of other drugs. In addition, between-patient variability in frequency of interaction may relate to differences in the activities of these enzymes. Although the mechanisms and scope of these interactions are becoming well characterised, the remaining challenge is how to best inform the clinician so that the undesirable consequences of interactions may be prevented.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abadie-Kemmerly S, Pankey GA, Dalviso JR. Failure of ketoconazole treatment of Blastomyces dermatidis due to interaction of isoniazid and rifampin. Letter. Annals of Internal Medicine 109: 844–845, 1988
Albani F, Riva R, Baruzzi A. Clarithromycin-carbamazepine interaction: a case report. Epilepsia 34: 161–162, 1993
Albert KS, DeSante KA, Welch RD, DiSanto AR. Pharmacokinetic evaluation of a drug interaction between kaolin-pectin and clindamycin. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 11: 1579–1582, 1978
Alexander I. ‘Alcohol-antabuse’ syndrome in patients receiving metronidazole during gynecological treatment. British Journal of Clinical Practice 39: 292–293, 1985
Antoniskis D, Easley AC, Espina BM, Davidson PT, Barnes PF. Combined toxicity of zidovudine and antituberculosis chemotherapy. American Review of Respiratory Diseases 145: 430–434, 1992
Aoki FY, Yatscoff R, Jeffrey J, Rush D, Sitar D. Effects of erythromycin on cyclosporine A kinetics in renal transplant patients. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 41: 221, 1987
Apseloff G, Hilligoss DM, Gardner MJ, Henry EB, Inskeep PB, et al. Induction of fluconazole metabolism by rifampin: in vivo study in humans. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 31: 358–61, 1991
Avent CK, Krinsky D, Kirklin JK, Bourge RC, Figg WD. Synergistic nephrotoxicity due to ciprofloxacin and cyclosporine. American Journal of Medicine 85: 452–453, 1988
Azanza JR, Catalan M, Alvarez MP, Sabada B, Honorato J, et al. Possible interaction between cyclosporin and josamycin: a description of three cases. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 51: 572–575, 1992
Bach MC. Possible drug interaction during therapy with azidothymidine and acyclovir for AIDS. Letter. New England Journal of Medicine 316: 547, 1987
Bachmann K, Jauregui L. Use of single sample clearance estimates of cytochrome P450 substrates to characterize human hepatic CYP status in vivo. Xenobiotica 23: 307–315, 1993
Bachmann K, Schwartz JI, Fornay Jr R, Frogameni A, Jauregui LE. The effect of erythromycin on the disposition kinetics of warfarin. Pharmacology 28: 171–176, 1984
Baciewicz AM, Baciewicz FA. Cyclosporine pharmacokinetic drug interactions. American Journal of Surgery 157: 264–271, 1989
Baciewicz AM, Self TH, Bekemeyer WB. Update on rifampin drug interactions. Archives of Internal Medicine 147: 565–568, 1987
Baciewicz AM, Swafford Jr WB. Hypoglycemia induced by the interaction of chlorpropamide and co-trimoxazole. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 18: 309–310, 1984
Back DJ, Orme ML. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions with oral contraceptives. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 18: 472–484, 1990
Back DJ, Tjia JF. Comparative effects of the antimycotic drugs ketoconazole, fluconazole, itraconazole and terbinafine on the metabolism of cyclosporine by human liver microsomes. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 32: 624–626, 1991
Balis FM. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions of commonly used anticancer drugs. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 11: 223–235, 1986
Barnett G, Segura J, De La Torre R, Carbo M. Pharmacokinetic determination of relative potency of quinolone inhibition of caffeine disposition. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 39: 63–69, 1990
Bartkowski RR, Goldberg ME, Larijani GE, Boerner T. Inhibition of alfentanil metabolism by erythromycin. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 46: 99–102, 1989
Black DJ, Gidal BE, Seaton TL, McDonnell ND, Kunze KL, et al. An evaluation of the effect of fluconazole on the stereoselective metabolism of warfarin. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 32: 184 (abstract no. PIII-52), 1992
Bleske BE, Carver PL, Annesley TM, Bleske JR, Morady F. The effect of ciprofloxacin on the pharmacokinetic and ECG parameters of quinidine. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 30: 911–915, 1990
Bianco TM, Bussey HI, Farnett LE, Linn WD, Roush MK, et al. Potential warfarin-ciprofloxacin interaction in patients receiving long-term anticoagulation. Pharmacotherapy 12: 435–439, 1992
Bittencourt PR, Gracia CM, Martins R, Fernandes AG, Diekmann HW, et al. Phenytoin and carbamazepine decrease oral bioavailability of praziquantel. Neurology 42(1): 492–496, 1992
Blum RA, D’Andrea DT, Florentino BM, Wilton JH, Hilligoss DM, et al. Increased gastric pH and the bioavailability of fluconazole and ketoconazole. Annals of Internal Medicine 114: 755–757, 1991a
Blum RA, Wilton JH, Hilligoss DM, Gardner MJ, Henry EB, et al. Effect of fluconazole on the disposition of phenytoin. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 49: 420–425, 1991b
Borcherding SM, Baciewicz AM, Self TH. Update on rifampin drug interactions II. Archives of Internal Medicine 152: 711–716, 1992b
Borcherding SM, Bastian TL, Self TM, Abou-Shala N, LeDuc BW, et al. Two- and four-day rifampin chemoprophylaxis regimens induce oxidative metabolism. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 36: 1553–1558, 1992a
Boman G, Lundgren P, Stjernström G. Mechanism of the inhibitory effect of PAS granules on the absorption of rifampicin: adsorption of rifampicin by an excipient, bentonite. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 8: 293–299, 1975
Brosen K, Gram LF. Clinical significance of the sparteine/debrisoquine oxidative polymorphism. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 36: 537–547, 1989
Brass C, Galgiani JN, Blaschke TF, Defelice R, O’Reilly RA, et al. Disposition of ketoconazole, an oral antifungal, in humans. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 21: 151–158, 1982
Brown MW, Maldonado AL, Meredith CG, Speeg Jr KV. Effect of ketoconazole on hepatic oxidative drug metabolism. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 37: 290–297, 1985
Burger DM, Meenhorst PL, Koks CHW, Beijnen JH. Drug interactions with zidovudine. AIDS 7: 445–460, 1993a
Burger DM, Meenhorst PL, Koks CHW, Beijnen JH. Pharmacokinetic interaction between rifampin and zidovudine. 9th International Conference on AIDS, Berlin, June 6–11, 1993. Abstract no. PO-B31-2211, 1993b
Busfield D, Child KJ, Atkinson RM, Tomich EG. An effect of phenobarbitone on blood-levels of griseofulvin in man. Lancet 2: 1042–1043, 1963
Campbell NR, Hasinoff BB. Iron supplements: a common cause of drug interactions. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 31: 251–255, 1991
Canafax DM, Graves NM, Hilligoss DM, Carleton BC, Gardner MJ, et al. Interaction between cyclosporine and fluconazole in renal allograft recipients. Transplantation 51: 1014–1018, 1991
Cantilena L, Wortham D, Honig P. Effect of cimetidine and ranitidine on the pharmacokinetics and ECG pharmacodynamics of terfenadine. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 53: 161 (abstract no. PI-105), 1993
Caporaso NE, Shaw GL. Clinical implications of the competitive inhibition of the debrisoquine-metabolizing enzyme by quinidine. Archives of Internal Medicine 151: 1985–1992, 1991
Carlson JA, Mann HJ, Canafax DM. Effect of pH on disintegration and dissolution of ketoconazole tablets. American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 40: 1334–1336, 1983
Chang KC, Bell TD, Lauer BA, Chai H. Altered theophylline pharmacokinetics during acute respiratory viral illness. Lancet 1: 1132–1133, 1978
Chapron DJ, Mumford D, Pitegoff GI. Apparent quinidine-induced digoxin toxicity after withdrawal of pentobarbital: a case of sequential drug interactions. Archives of Internal Medicine 139: 363–365, 1979
Charles BG, Ravenscroft PJ, Rigby RJ. The ketoconazole-cyclosporin interaction in an elderly renal transplant patient. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine 19: 292–293, 1989
Chave JP, Munafo A, Biollaz J, Chatton JY, Dayer P, et al. Weekly azithromycin in HIV+ patients: tolerability, kinetics and effects on zidovudine disposition. Program and Abstracts of the 31st Inter-science Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, American Society for Microbiology, Chicago. Abstract no. 761, p. 226, 1991
Christensen LK, Skovsted L. Inhibition of drug metabolism by chloramphenicol. Lancet 2: 1397–1399, 1969
Collignon P, Hurley B, Mitchell D. Interaction of fluconazole with cyclosporin. Lancet 1: 1262, 1989
Combalbert J, Fabre I, Fabre G, Dalet I, Derancourt J, et al. Metabolism of cyclosporin: IV. Purification and identification of the rifampin-inducible human liver cytochrome P450 (cyclosporin A oxidase) as a product of P450IIIA4 gene subfamily. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 17: 197–207, 1989
Craig PI, Tapner M, Farrell GC. Interferon suppresses erythromycin metabolism in rats and human subjects. Hepatology 17: 231–235, 1993
Cretton EM, Kidd L, Diasio RB, Sommadossi J-P. Clinical pharmacokinetics of 3′-azido-3′-deoxythymidine (zidovudine) and catabolites with formation of a toxic catabolite, 3′-amino-3′-deoxythymidine. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 51: 668–676, 1992
Cretton EM, Placidi L, Sommadossi J-P. Conversion of 3′-azido-3′-deoxythymidine (AZT) to its toxic metabolite, 3′-amino-3′-deoxythymidine (AMT) is mediated by cytochrome P450 and NAPPH-cytochrome c reductase in liver microsomes. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 53: 189 (abstract no. PII-78), 1993
Cretton EM, Schinazi RF, McClure HM, Anderson DC, Sommadossi J-P. Pharmacokinetics of 3′-azido-3′-deoxythymidine and its catabolites and interactions with probenecid in rhesus monkeys. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 35: 801–807, 1991
Crussell-Porter LL, Rindone JP, Ford MA, Jaskar DW. Low-dose fluconazole therapy potentiates the hypoprothrombinemic response to warfarin sodium. Archives of Internal Medicine 153: 102–104, 1993
Daneshmend TK, Warnock DW. Clinical pharmacokinetics of systemic antifungal drugs. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 8: 17–42, 1983
Daneshmend TK, Warnock DW. Clinical pharmacokinetics of ketoconazole. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 14: 13–34, 1988
Danos EA. Apparent potentiation of warfarin activity by tetracycline. Clinical Pharmacy 11: 806–808, 1992
Data JL, Wilkinson GR, Nies AS. Interaction with quinidine and anticonvulsant drugs. New England Journal of Medicine 294: 699–702, 1976
Davis RL, Quenzer RW, Kelly HW, Powell JR. Effect of the addition of ciprofloxacin on theophylline pharmacokinetics in subjects inhibited by cimetidine. Pharmacotherapy 26: 11–13, 1992
Dean RP, Talbert RL. Bleeding associated with concurrent warfarin and metronidazole therapy. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 14: 864–866, 1980
DeMiranda P, Good SS, Yarchoan R, Thomas RV, Blum R, et al. Alteration of zidovudine pharmacokinetics by probenecid in patients with AIDS or AIDS-related complex. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 46: 494–500, 1989
Dieperink H, Moller J. Ketoconazole and cyclosporin. Lancet 2: 1217, 1982
Doble N, Shaw R, Rowland-Hill C, Lush M, Warnock DW, et al. Pharmacokinetic study of the interaction between rifampicin and ketoconazole. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 21: 633–635, 1988
Eller MG, Okerholm RA. Pharmacokinetic interaction between terfenadine and ketoconazole. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 49: 130 (abstract no. PI-29), 1991
Elston RA, Taylor J. Possible interaction of ciprofloxacin with cyclosporin A. Letter. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 22: 679–680, 1988
Engelhard D, Stutman HR, Marks MI. Interaction of ketoconazole with rifampin and isoniazid. New England Journal of Medicine 311: 1681–1683, 1984
Epstein MM, Nelson SD, Slattery JT, Kalhorn TF, Wall RA, et al. Inhibition of the metabolism of acetaminophen by isoniazid. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 31: 139–142, 1991
Ferguson RM, Sutherland DER, Simmons RL, Najarian JS. Ketoconazole, cyclosporin metabolism, and renal transplantation. Lancet 2: 882–883, 1982
First MR, Schroeder TJ, Weiskittel P, Myre SA, Alexander JW, et al. Concomitant administration of cyclosporin and ketoconazole in renal transplant recipients. Lancet 2: 1198–1201, 1989
Fleishaker JC, Phillips JP. Evaluation of a potential interaction between erythromycin and glyburide in diabetic volunteers. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 31: 259–262, 1991
Fletcher CV, Henry K, Noormohamed SE, Rhame FS, Goodroad B, et al. The pharmacologic effect of H2-antagonists with zidovudine. Program and abstracts of the 31st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, American Society for Microbiology, Chicago. Abstract no. 1346, p. 323, 1991
Friedman HM, Grasela T. Adenine arabinoside and allopurinol — possible adverse drug interaction. Letter. New England Journal of Medicine 304: 423, 1981
Fuhr U, Anders EM, Mahr G, Sörgel F, Staib AH. Inhibitory potency of quinolone antibacterial agents against cytochrome P450IA2 activity in vivo and in vitro. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 36: 942–948, 1992a
Fuhr U, Staib AH, Kinzig M, Sörgel F. Lack of an effect of macrolides on cytochrome P4501A2 activity in human liver microsomes. Program and Abstracts, First International Conference on the Macrolides, Azalides and Streptogramins, Santa Fe, January 22–25 1992. Abstract no. 206, p.47, 1992b
Fuhr U, Strobl G, Manaut F, Anders E, Sörgel F, et al. Quinolone antibacterial agents: relationship between structure and in vitro inhibition of the human cytochrome P450 isoform CYP1A2. Molecular Pharmacology 43: 191–199, 1993
Gallicano K, Sahai J, Zaror-Behrens G, Pakuts A. Effect of antacids in didanosine tablets on the bioavailability of isoniazid. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, in press, 1993
Gannon RH, Anderson ML. Fluconazole-nortriptyline drug interaction. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 26: 1456–1457, 1992
Garrelts JC, Godley PJ, Peterie JD, Gerlach EH, Yakshe CC. Sucralfate significantly reduces ciprofloxacin concentrations in serum. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 34: 931–933, 1990
Gascon MP, Dayer P. Comparative effects of macrolide antibiotics on liver monooxygenases. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 49: 158, 1991a
Gascon MP, Dayer P. In vitro forecasting of drugs which may interfere with the biotransformation of midazolam. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 41: 573–578, 1991b
Gascon MP, Oestreicher-Kondo M, Dayer P. Comparative effects of imidazole antifungals on liver monooxygenases. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 49: 158 (abstract no. PII-37), 1991
Gazzaniga AB, Stewart DR. Possible quinidine-induced hemorrhage in a patient on warfarin sodium. New England Journal of Medicine 280: 711–712, 1969
George J, Farrell GC. Role of human hepatic cytochromes P450 in drug metabolism and toxicity. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine 21: 356–362, 1991
Gillman MA, Sandyk R. Phenytoin toxicity and co-trimoxazole. Letter. Annals of Internal Medicine 102: 559, 1985
Grant SM, Clissold SP. Itraconazole: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic use in superficial and systemic mycoses. Drugs 37: 310–344, 1989
Grant SM, Clissold SP. Fluconazole: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic potential in superficial and systemic mycoses. Drugs 39: 877–916, 1990
Grasela TH, Schentag JJ, Sedman AJ, Wilton JH, Thomas DJ, et al. Inhibition of enoxacin absorption by antacids or ranitidine. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 33: 615–617, 1989
Grau E, Fontcuberta J, Felez J. Erythromycin-oral anticoagulants interaction. Archives of Internal Medicine 146: 1639, 1986
Gugler R, Allgayer H. Effects of antacids on the clinical pharmacokinetics of drugs: an update. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 18: 210–219, 1990
Gustavson LE, Chu S, Mackenthun A, Gupta S, Craft JC. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 53: 163 (abstract no. PL-114), 1993
Hansen JM, Kampmann JP, Sierskæk-Nielson K, Lumholtz IB, Arroe M, et al. The effect of different sulfonamides on phenytoin metabolism in ma. Acta Medica Scandinavica (Suppl. 1) 624: 106–110, 1979
Harder S, Staib AH, Beer C, Papenberg A, Stille W, et al. 4-Quinolones inhibit biotransformation of caffeine. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 35: 651–656, 1988
Harper JM, Yost RL, Stewart RB, Ciezkowski J. Phenytoin-chloramphenicol interaction: a retrospective study. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 13: 425–429, 1979
Healy DP, Polk RE, Kanawati L, Rock DT, Mooney ML. Interaction between oral ciprofloxacin and caffeine in normal volunteers. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 33: 474–478, 1989
Hebert MF, Roberts JP, Prueksaritanont P, Benet LZ. Bioavailability of cyclosporine with concomitant rifampin administration is markedly less than predicted by hepatic enzyme induction. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 52: 454–457, 1992
Hedaya MA, Elmquist WF, Sawchuk R. Probenecid inhibits the metabolic and renal clearances of zidovudine (AZT) in human volunteers. Pharmaceutical Research 7: 411–417, 1990
Henrivaux PH, Fairon Y, Fillet G. Pharmacokinetics of AZT among HIV-infected patients treated with itraconazole. 5th International Conference on AIDS, Montreal, June 1989. Abstract no. MBP-340, 1989
Heusner JJ, Dukes GE, Rollins DE, Tolman KG, Galinsky RE. Effect of chronically administered ketoconazole on the elimination of theophylline in man. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 21: 514–517, 1987
Hochster H, Dieterich D, Bozzette S, Reichman RC, Connor JD, et al. Toxicity of combined ganciclovir and zidovudine for cytomegalovirus disease associated with AIDS. Annals of Internal Medicine 113: 111–117, 1990
Hoffken G, Lode H, Wiley R, Glatzel P, Sievens D, et al. Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin: effect of food and antacid intake. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 10 (Suppl.): 138–139, 1988
Hollander H, Lifson AR, Maha M, Blum R, Rutherford GW, et al. Phase I study of low-dose zidovudine and acyclovir in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus seropositive individuals. American Journal of Medicine 87: 628–632, 1989
Honig P, Wortham D, Zamani K, Conner D, Cantilena L. Effect of erythromycin, clarithromycin and azithromycin on the pharmacokinetics of terfenadine. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 53: 161 (abstract no. PI-106), 1993a
Honig PK, Wortham DC, Zamani K, Conner DP, Mullin JC, et al. Terfenadine-ketoconazole interaction: pharmacokinetic and electrocardiographic consequences. Journal of the American Medical Association 269: 1513–1518, 1993b
Honig PK, Wortham DC, Zamani K, Mullin JC, Conner DP, et al. The effect of fluconazole on the steady-state pharmacokinetics and electrocardiographic pharmacodynamics of terfenadine in humans. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 53: 630–636, 1993c
Honig PK, Woosley RL, Zamani K, Conner DP, Cantilena LR. Changes in the pharmacokinetics and electrocardiographic pharmacodynamics of terfenadine with concomitant administration of erythromycin. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 52: 231–238, 1992
Hooper TL, Gould FK, Swinburn CR, Featherstone G, Odom NJ, et al. Ciprofloxacin: a preferred treatment for legionella infections in patients receiving cyclosporin A. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 22: 952–953, 1988
Horowitz HW, Jorde UP, Wormser G. Drug interactions in use of dapsone for Pneumocystis carinii prophylaxis. Lancet 339: 747, 1992
Hurwitz A, Schlozman DL. Effects of antacids on gastrointestinal absorption of isoniazid in rat and man. American Review of Respiratory Disease 109: 41–47, 1974
Israel DS, Stotka JL, Rock WL, Polk RE, Rogge MC, et al. Effect of ciprofloxacin administration on warfarin response in adult subjects. Program and Abstracts of the 31st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, American Society for Microbiology, Chicago. Abstract no. 599, p. 199, 1991
Janknegt R. Drug interactions with quinolones. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 26 (Suppl. D): 7–29, 1990
Jenkins LC, Scoates PJ. Anaesthetic implications of calcium channel blockers. Canadian Anaesthetists’ Society Journal 32: 436–437, 1985
Jensen CWB, Flechner SM, Van Buren CT, Frazier OH, Cooley DA, et al. Exacerbation of cyclosporin toxicity by concomitant administration of erythromycin. Transplantation 43: 263–270, 1987
Johnson JF, Dobmeier ME. Symptomatic hypoglycemia secondary to a glipizide-trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole drug interaction. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 24: 250–251, 1990
Johnson R, Douglas J, Corey L, Krasnet H. Adverse effects with acyclovir and meperidine. Annals of Internal Medicine 103: 962–963, 1985
Jolson HM, Tanner LA, Green L, Grasela TH. Adverse reaction reporting of interaction between warfarin and fluoroquinolones. Archives of Internal Medicine 151: 1003–1004, 1991
Jonville AP, Gauchez AS, Autret E, Billard C, Barbier P, et al. Inter-action between isoniazid and valproate: a case of valproate overdosage. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 40: 197–198, 1991
Kamada AK. Possible interaction between ciprofloxacin and warfarin. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 24: 27–28, 1990
Kamali F, Thomas SH, Edwards C. The influence of steady-state ciprofloxacin on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a single dose of diazepam in healthy volunteers. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 44: 365–367, 1993
Kambam JR, Franks JJ, Naukam R, Sastry BV. Effect of quinidine on plasma cholinesterase activity and succinylcholine neuromuscular blockade. Anesthesiology 67: 858–860, 1987
Kamali F, Rawlins MD. Influence of probenecid and paracetamol (acetaminophen) on zidovudine glucuronidation in human liver in vitro. Biopharmaceutics and Drug Disposition 13: 403–409, 1992
Kauffman CA, Bagnasco FA. Digoxin toxicity associated with itraconazole therapy. Clinical Infectious Diseases 15: 886–887, 1992
Kline SS, Mauro VF, Forney Jr RB, Freimer EH, Somani P. Cefotetan-induced disulfiram-type reactions and hypoprothrombinemia. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 31: 1328–1331, 1987
Knupp CA, Dixon RM, Graziano F, Dunkle LM, Barbhaiya RH. A pharmacokinetic interaction study between didanosine and ranitidine in HIV seropositive patients. Program and Abstracts of the 31st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, American Society for Microbiology, Chicago. Abstract no. 757, p. 225, 1991
Knupp CA, Brater DC, Relue J, Dunkle LM, Barbhaiya RH. A pharmacokinetic interaction study between didanosine (ddI) and ketoconazole (KET) in HIV patients. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 51: 155 (abstract no. PII-37), 1992
Koch-Weser J. Quinidine-induced hypoprothrombinemic hemorrhage in patients on chronic warfarin therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine 68: 511–517, 1968
Kolars JC, Schmiedlin-Ren P, Schuetz JD, Fang C, Watkins P. Identification of rifampin-inducible P450IIIA4 (CYP3A4) in human small bowel enterocytes. Journal of Clinical Investigation 90: 1871–1878, 1992
Kornhauser DM, Petty BG, Hendrix CW, Woods AS, Nerhood LJ, et al. Probenecid and zidovudine metabolism. Lancet 2: 473–475, 1989
Kosoglou T, Rocci Jr ML, Vlasses PH. Trimethoprim alters the disposition of procainamide and n-acetylprocainamide. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 44: 467–477, 1988
Kramer MR, Marshall SE, Denning DW, Keogh AM, Tucker RM, et al. Cyclosporin and itraconazole interaction in heart and lung transplant recipients. Annals of Internal Medicine 113: 327–329, 1990
Kroemer HK, Klotz U. Glucuronidaton of drugs: a re-evaluation of the pharmacological significance of the conjugates and modelling factors. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 23: 292–310, 1992
Kronbach T, Mathys D, Umeno M, Gonzales FJ, Meyer UA. Oxidation of midazolam and triazolam by human liver cytochrome P450IIIA4. Molecular Pharmacology 36: 89–96, 1989
Kutt H, Brennan R, Dehejia H, Verebely K. Diphenylhydantoin intoxication: a complication of isoniazid therapy. American Review of Respiratory Disease 101: 377–384, 1970
La Delfa I, Xia YF, Blasche TF. Dose-dependent inhibition of cyclosporine metabolism in mice by fluconazole. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 68: 89–93, 1990
Lang J, Finaz de Villaine J, Garraffo R, Touraine JL. Cyclosporin (cyclosporin A) pharmacokinetics in renal transplant patients receiving ciprofloxacin. American Journal of Medicine 87 (Suppl. 5A): 82s–85s, 1989a
Lang J, Finaz de Villaine J, Guemei A, Touraine JL, Faucon C. Absence of pharmacokinetic interaction between pefloxacin and cyclosporin A in patients with renal transplants. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 11 (Suppl. 5): S1094, 1989b
Laskin OL, DeMiranda P, King DH, Page DA, Longstreth JA, et al. Effects of probenecid on the pharmacokinetics and elimination of acyclovir in humans. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 21: 804–807, 1982
Lazar JD, Wilner KD. Drug interactions with fluconazole. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 12 (Suppl. 3): S327–S333, 1990
Leden I. Digoxin-hydroxychloroquine interaction? Acta Medica Scandinavica 211: 411–412, 1982
Lee BL, Medina I, Benowitz NL, Peyton J, Wofsy CB, et al. Dapsone, trimethoprim, and sulfamethoxazole plasma levels during treatment of pneumocystis pneumonia in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Annals of Internal Medicine 110: 606–611, 1989
Lee BL, Safrin S. Interactions and toxicities of drugs used in patients with AIDS. Clinical Infectious Diseases 14: 773–779, 1992
Lee BL, Safrin S, Makrides V, Benowitz NL, Gambertoglio JG, et al. Trimethoprim decreases the renal clearance of zidovudine. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 51: 183 (abstract no. PIII-51), 1992
Leemann T, Dayer P, Meyer UA. Single dose quinidine treatment inhibits metoprolol oxidation in extensive metabolizers. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 29: 739–741, 1986
Leor J, Matetzki S. Ofloxacin and warfarin. Letter. Annals of Internal Medicine 109: 761, 1988
LePennec MP, Kitzis MD, Terdjman M, Foubard S, Garbarz E, et al. Possible interaction of ciprofloxacin with ferrous sulphate. Letter. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 25: 184–185, 1990
Lertora JJ, Greenspan DL, Rege AB, Akula S, George WJ, et al. Valproic acid inhibits glucuronidation of zidovudine in HIV-infected patients. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 53: 197 (abstract no. PII-11), 1993
Lesko LJ. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions with amiodarone. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 17: 130–140, 1989
Li R, Narang PK, Sahai JV, Singh M, Cameron W, et al. Lack of effect of concomitant didanosine (ddI) on rifabutin (Rif) disposition in HIV(+) patients. 9th International Conference on AIDS, Berlin, June 6–11 1993. Abstract no. PO-B31-2219, 1993
Lindenbaum J, Rund DG, Butler VP, Tse-Eng D, Saha JN. Inactivation of digoxin by the gut flora: reversal by antibiotic therapy. New England Journal of Medicine 305: 789–794, 1981
Lindstrom TD, Hanssen BR, Wrighton SA. Cytochrome P-450 complex formation by dirithromycin and other macrolides in rat and human livers. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 37: 265–269, 1993
Linville T, Matanin D. Norfloxacin and warfarin. Letter. Annals of Internal Medicine 110: 751–752, 1989
Lode H, Hampel B, Wachter T, Borner K, Koeppe P. Single dose pharmacokinetics of fleroxacin in volunteers fasting, after standard breakfast and antacids. International Congress of Chemotherapy, Jerusalem, Israel, 1989. Abstract no. W-14, p. 228, 1989
Loi CM, Parker B, Vestal RE. Combined effect of cimetidine and ciprofloxacin on theophylline disposition. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 49: 130 (abstract no. PL-27), 1991
Lomaestro BM, Bailie GR. Effect of staggered dose of calcium on the bioavailability of ciprofloxacin. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 35: 1004–1007, 1991a
Lomaestro BM, Bailie GR. Quinolone-cation interactions: a review. DICP-Annals of Pharmacotherapy 25: 1249–1258, 1991b
Ludwig EA, Slaughter RL, Savliwala M, Brass C, Jusko WJ. Steroid-specific effects of ketoconazole on corticosteroid disposition: unaltered prednisolone elimination. DICP — Annals of Pharmacotherapy 23: 858–861, 1989
Ludwig E, Szekely E, Graber H, Csiba A. Study of interaction between oral ciprofloxacin and glibenclamide. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 10 (special issue): 378–379, 1991
Magnasco AJ, Magnasco LD. Interaction of ketoconazole and ethanol. Clinical Pharmacy 5: 522–523, 1986
Marchbanks CR, Flor SC, Beals B. The effect of food or milk on the absorption kinetics of ofloxacin. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 41: 569–571, 1991
Mathews DR, McNutt B, Okerholm R, Flicker McBride G. Torsades de pointes occurring in association with terfenadine use. Letter. Journal of the American Medical Association 266: 2375–2376, 1991
McDaniel PA, Caldroney RD. Oral contraceptives and griseofulvin interaction. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 20: 384, 1986
McNulty RM, Lazor JA, Sketch M. Transient increase in plasma quinidine concentrations during ketoconazole-quinidine therapy. Clinical Pharmacy 8: 222–225, 1989
Mead PB, Gibson M. Possible alteration of metronidazole metabolism by phenobarbital. New England Journal of Medicine 306: 1490, 1982
Mesdjian E, Dravet C, Cenraud B, Roger J. Carbamazepine intoxication due to triacetyloleandomycin administration in epileptic patients. Epilepsia 21: 489–496, 1980
Metroka CE, Laubenstein LJ, Jacobus DP, et al. Failure of prophylaxis with dapsone in patients taking didanosine. New England Journal of Medicine 325: 737, 1991
Miller KD, Greenberg AE, Campbell CC. Treatment of severe malaria in the United States with a continuous infusion of quinidine gluconate and exchange transfusion. New England Journal of Medicine 321: 65–70, 1989
Miller RD, Way WL, Katzung BG. The potentiation of neuromuscular blocking agents by quinidine. Anesthesiology 28: 1036–1041, 1967
Miller RR, Porter J, Greenblatt DJ. Clinical importance of the interaction of phenytoin and isoniazid: a report from the Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program. Chest 75: 356–358, 1979
Milne RW, Coulthard K, Nation RL, Penna AC, Roberts G, et al. Lack of effect of erythromycin on the pharmacokinetics of single oral dose of phenytoin. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 26: 330–333, 1988
Misiak PM, Eldon MA, Toothaker RD, Sedman AJ. Effects of oral cimetidine or ranitidine on the pharmacokinetics of intravenous enoxacin. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 33: 53–56, 1993
Mitchell AS, Holland JT. Fluconazole and phenytoin: a predictable interaction. British Medical Journal 298: 1315, 1989
Monahan BP, Ferguson CL, Killeavy ES, Lloyd BK, Troy J, et al. Torsades de pointes occurring in association with terfenadine use. Journal of the American Medical Association 264: 2788–2790, 1990
Moreno F, Hardin TC, Rinaldi M, Graybill JR. Itraconazole-didanosine excipient interaction. Journal of the Americam Medical Association 269: 1508, 1993
Morita K, Konishi H, Shimakawa H. Fluconazole: a potent inhibitor of cytochrome P450 dependent drug metabolism in mice and humans in vivo. Comparative study with ketoconazole. Chemical and Pharmacology Bulletin 40: 1247–1251, 1992
Morse G, Ragni M, Shelton M, O’Donnell A, Bartos L, et al. Renal excretion patterns of zidovudine and didanosine during combination therapy in ACTG 143. Program and Abstracts of the 32nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, American Society for Microbiology, Anaheim. Abstract no. 563, p. 204, 1992
Morse GD, Shelton M, O’Donnell AM. Comparative pharmacokinetics of antiviral nucleoside analogues. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 24: 101–123, 1993
Murray M. P450 enzymes: inhibition mechanisms, genetic regulation and effects of liver disease. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 23: 132–146, 1992
Naline E, Sanceaume M, Pays M, Advenier C. Application of theophylline metabolite assays to the exploration of liver microsome oxidative function in man. Fundamentals in Clinical Pharmacology 2: 341–351, 1988
Narang P, Nightingale S, Manzone C, Colborn D, Wynne B, et al. Does rifabutin affect zidovudine disposition in HIV(+) patients? Program and Abstracts of the 8th International Conference on AIDS 1992. Abstract no. PO-B3888, 1992
Narang PK, Sale M. Population based assessment of rifabutin effect on zidovudine disposition in AIDS patients. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 53: 219 (abstract no. PIII-52), 1993
Neuvonen PJ, Kivisto KT, Lehto P. Interference of dairy products with the absorption of ciprofloxacin. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 50: 498–502, 1991
Nix DE, Schentag JJ. Lomefloxacin absorption kinetics when administered with ranitidine and sucralfate. Proceedings of the 29th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Houston, American Society for Microbiology, Washington. Abstract no. 1276, p. 317, 1989
Nix DE, Watson WA, Handy L, Frost RW, Rescott DL, et al. The effect of sucralfate pretreatment on the pharmacokinetics of ciprofloxacin. Pharmacotherapy 9: 377–380, 1989a
Nix DE, Watson WA, Lener ME, Frost RW, Krol G, et al. Effects of aluminum and magnesium antacids and ranitidine on the absorption of ciprofloxacin. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 46: 700–705, 1989b
Nix DE, Zelenitsky SA, Symonds WT, Spivey JM, Norman A. The effect of fluconazole on the pharmacokinetics of caffeine in young and elderly subjects. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 51: 183 (abstract no. PIII-49), 1992
Nokta M, Loh JP, Douidar SM, Ahmed AE, Pollard RB. Metabolic interaction of recombinant interferon-β and zidovudine in AIDS patients. Journal of Interferon Research 11: 159–164, 1991
Novakova I, Donnelly P, de Witte T, de Pauw B, Boezeman J, et al. Itraconazole and cyclosporin nephrotoxicity. Lancet 2: 920–921, 1987
Noyes M, Polk RE. Norfloxacin and absorption of magnesium-aluminum. Letter. Annals of Internal Medicine 109: 168–169, 1988
Okino K, Weibert RT. Warfarin-griseofulvin interaction. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 20: 291–293, 1986
Olkkola KT, Arano K, Luurila H, Hiller A, Saarnivaaral J, et al. A potentially dangerous interaction between erythromycin and midazolam. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 53: 289–305, 1993
O’Reilly RA. The stereoselective interaction of warfarin and metronidazole in man. New England Journal of Medicine 295: 354–357, 1976
O’Reilly RA. Stereoselective interaction of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole with the separated enantiomorphs of racemic warfarin in man. New England Journal of Medicine 302: 33–35, 1980
Ostergaard D, Engbaek J, Viby-Mogensen J. Adverse reactions and interactions of the neuromuscular blocking drugs. Medical Toxicology and Adverse Drug Experiences 4: 351–368, 1989
Parent M, LeBel M. Meta-analysis of quinolone-theophylline interactions. DICP — Annals of Pharmacotherapy 25: 191–194, 1991
Park BK, Kitteringham NR. Assessment of enzyme induction and enzyme inhibition in humans: toxicologic implications. Xenobiotica 20: 1171–1185, 1990
Parpia SH, Nix DE, Hejmanowski LG, Goldstein HR, Wilton JH, et al. Sucralfate reduces the gastrointestinal absorption of norfloxacin. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 33: 99–102, 1989
Pederson KE, Madsen JL, Klitgaard NA, Kjaer K, Hvidt S. Effect of quinine on plasma digoxin concentration and renal digoxin clearance. Acta Medica Scandinavica 218: 229–232, 1985
Peloquin CA, Nix DE, Sedman AJ, Wilton JH, Toothaker RD, et al. Pharmacokinetics and clinical effects of caffeine alone and in combination with oral enoxacin. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 11 (Suppl. 5): S1095, 1989
Penston J, Wormsley KG. Adverse reactions and interactions with H2-receptor antagonists. Medical Toxicology 1: 192–216, 1986
Periti P, Mazzei T, Mini E, Novelli A. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions of macrolides. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 23: 106–131, 1992
Pessayre D, Larrey D, Funck-Brentano C, Benhamou JP. Drug interactions and hepatitis produced by some macrolides. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 16 (Suppl. A): 181–194, 1985
Petersen P, Kastrup J, Bartum R, Hansen JM. Digoxin-trimethoprim interaction. Acta Medica Scandinavica 217: 423–427, 1985
Petty B, Polis M, Haneiwich S, Dellerson M, Craft JC, et al. Pharmacokinetic assessment of clarithromycin plus zidovudine in HIV patients. Program and Abstracts of the 32nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, American Society for Microbiology, Anaheim, CA. Abstract no. 24, p. 114, 1992
Phillips JP, Antal EJ, Smith RB. A pharmacokinetic interaction between erythromycin and triazolam. Journal of Clinical Psycho-pharmacology 6: 297–299, 1986
Pichard L, Fabre I, Fabre G, Domerque J, Saint Aubert B, et al. Screening for inducers and inhibitors of cytochrome P450 (cyclosporine A oxidase) in primary cultures of human hepatocytes and in liver microsomes. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 18: 595–606, 1990
Pilheu JA, Galati MR, Yunis AS, De Salvo MC, Negroni R, et al. Interaccion farmacocinetica entre ketoconazol, isoniacida y rifampicina. Medicina 49: 43–47, 1989
Pohjola-Sintonen S, Vitasalo M, Toivonen L, Neuvonen P. Torsades de pointes after terfenadine-itraconazole interaction. British Medical Journal 306: 186, 1993
Polis MA, Haneiwich S, Kovacs JA, Davey RT, Walker RE, et al. Dose escalation study to determine the safety, maximally tolerated dose, and pharmacokinetics of clarithromycin with zidovudine in HIV-infected persons. Program and Abstracts of the 31st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, American Society for Microbiology, Chicago. Abstract no. 238, p. 138, 1991
Polk R. Drug-drug interactions with ciprofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones. American Journal of Medicine 87 (Suppl. 5A): 76–81, 1989
Polk RE, Gillum JG, Israel D, Scott RB, Climo M. Effect of ciprofloxacin (CIP) and clarithromycin (CLARY) on the metabolism of theophylline (THEO) in healthy volunteers. Proceedings and Abstracts of the 33rd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, October 15–17 1993, New Orleans. Abstract no. 596, 1993
Polk RE, Healy DP, Sahai J, Drwal L, Racht E. Effect of ferrous sulfate and multivitamins with zinc on absorption of ciprofloxacin in normal volunteers. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 33: 1841–1844, 1989
Powell DA, Nahata MC, Durrell DC, Glazer JP, Hilty MD, et al. Interactions among chloramphenicol, phenytoin, and phenobarbital in a pediatric patient. Journal of Pediatrics 98: 1001–1003, 1981
Prince RA, Wing DS, Weinberger MM, Hendles LS, Riegelman S. Effect of erythromycin on theophylline kinetics. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 68: 427–431, 1981
Raasch RH. Interactions of oral antibiotics and common chronic medications. Geriatrics 42: 69–74, 1987
Randandt JM, Marchbanks CR, Dudley MN. Interactions of fluoroquinolones with other drugs: mechanisms, variability, clinical significance, and management. Clinical Infectious Diseases 14: 272–284, 1992
Ragosta M, Weihl AC, Rosenfeld LE. Potentially fatal interaction between erythromycin and disopyramide. American Journal of Medicine 86: 465–466, 1989
Rajaonarison JF, Lacarelle B, Catalin J, Placidi M, Rahmani R. 3′-Azido-3′-deoxythymidine drug interactions: screening for inhibitors in human liver microsomes. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 20: 578–584, 1992
Redington K, Wells C, Petito F. Erythromycin and valproate interaction. Letter. Annals of Internal Medicine 116: 877–878, 1992
Renton KW, Cribb AE, Armstrong S. Role of altered drug metabolism in virus-drug interactions. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 13: 1256–1257, 1991
Rex J. Itraconazole-digoxin interaction. Annals of Internal Medicine 116: 525, 1992
Richman DD, Fischl MA, Grieco MH, Gottlieb MS, Volberding PA, et al. The toxicity of azidothymidine (AZT) in the treatment of patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex. New England Journal of Medicine 317: 192–197, 1987
Rieth H, Sauerbrey N. Interaktionsstudien mit Fluconazol, einem neuen Triazolantimykotikum. Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift 139: 370–374, 1989
Robson RA, Begg EJ, Atkinson HC, Saunders DA, Frampton CM. Competitive effects of ciprofloxacin and lomefloxacin on the oxidative metabolism of theophylline. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 29: 491–493, 1990
Rocci Jr ML, Vlasses PH, Distlerath LM, Gregg MH, Wheeler SC, et al. Norfloxacin does not alter warfarin’s disposition or anticoagulant effect. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 30: 728–732, 1990
Rodin SM, Johnson BF. Pharmacokinetic interactions with digoxin. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 15: 227–244, 1988
Rosenthal AR, Self TH, Baker ED, Linden RA. Interaction of isoniazid and warfarin. Journal of the American Medical Association 238: 2177, 1977
Rothstein E, Clancy DD. Toxicity of disulfiram combined with metronidazole. New England Journal of Medicine 280: 1006–1007, 1969
Rowe BR, Thorpe J, Barnett A. Safety of fluconazole in women taking oral hypoglycemic agents. Lancet 339: 255–256, 1992
Sachs MK, Blanchard LM, Green PJ. Interaction of itraconazole and digoxin. Clinical Infectious Diseases 16: 400–403, 1993
Sahai J, Gallicano K, Garber G, Pakuts A, Hawley-Foss N, et al. Evaluation of the in vivo effect of naproxen on zidovudine pharmacokinetics in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 52: 464–470, 1992
Sahai J, Gallicano K, Oliveras L, Khalig S, Hawley-Foss N, et al. Cations in the didanosine tablet reduce ciprofloxacin bioavailability. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 53: 292–297, 1993a
Sahai J, Gallicano K, Seguin I, Cameron W. Effect of fluconazole on zidovudine pharmacokinetics. Proceedings and Abstracts of the 33rd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, October 15–17 1993, New Orleans. Abstract no. 324, 1993c
Sahai JV, Stotka J, Healy DP, Polk RE. The influence of chronic administration of calcium carbonate on the bioavailability of oral ciprofloxacin. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 35: 302–304, 1993b
Sands M, Brown RB. Interactions of cyclosporine with antimicrobial agents. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 11: 691–697, 1989
Sarkar M, Polk RE, Guzelian PS, Hunt C, Karnes HT. In vitro effect of fluoroquinolones on theophylline metabolism in human liver microsomes. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 34: 594–599, 1990
Sarma GR, Kailasam S, Nair NGK, Narayana ASL, Tripathy SP. Effect of prednisolone and rifampin on isoniazid metabolism in slow and rapid inactivators of isoniazid. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 18: 661–666, 1980
Sattler FR, Ko R, Antoniskis D, Shields M, Cohen J, et al. Acetaminophen does not impair clearance of zidovudine. Annals of Internal Medicine 114: 937–940, 1991
Sawchuk RJ, Hedaya MA. Modeling the enhanced uptake of zidovudine (AZT) into cerebrospinal fluid: 1. Effect on probenecid. Pharmaceutical Research 7: 332–338, 1990
Schneider D, Gannon R, Sweeney K, Shore E. Theophylline and antiparasitic drug interactions: a case report and study of the influence of thiabendazole on theophylline pharmacokinetics in adults. Chest 97: 84–87, 1990
Schwatz EL, Brechbühl AB, Kahl P, Miller MA, Selwyn PA, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions of zidovudine and methadone in intravenous drug-using patients with HIV infection. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 5: 619–626, 1992
Schwartz J, Bachmann K, Perrigo E. Interaction between warfarin and erythromycin. Southern Medical Journal 76: 91–93, 1983
Shriner K, Goetz MB. Severe hepatotoxicity in a patient receiving both acetaminophen and zidovudine. American Journal of Medicine 93: 94–96, 1992
Sim SM, Back DJ, Breckenridge AM. The effect of various drugs on the glucuronidation of zidovudine (azidothymidine; AZT) by human liver microsomes. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 32: 17–21, 1991
Smith AG. Potentiation of oral anticoagulants by ketoconazole. British Medical Journal 288: 188–189, 1984
Sonne J, Dossino M, Loft S, Andreasen P. Antipyrine clearance in pneumonia. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 37: 701–703, 1985
Soons PA, Grib C, Breimer DD, Kirch W. Effects of acute febrile infectious diseases in the oral pharmacokinetics and effects of nitrendapine enantiomers and bisoprolol. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 23: 238–248, 1992
Sörgel F, Mahr G, Koch HU, Stephan U, Wiesemann HG, et al. Effects of cimetidine on the pharmacokinetics of pefloxacin in healthy volunteers. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 10 (Suppl. 1): S137, 1988
Spielberg SP. Idiosyncratic drug reactions: interaction of development and genetics. Seminars in Perinatology 16: 58–62, 1992
Staib AH, Stille W, Dietlein G, Shah PM, Harder S, et al. Interactions between quinolones and caffeine. Drugs 34 (Suppl. 1): 170–174, 1987
Steffe EM, King JH, Inciardi JF, Flynn NF, Goldstein E, et al. The effect of acetaminophen on zidovudine metabolism in HIV-infected patients. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 3: 691–694, 1990
Sugar AM, Saunders C, Idelson BA, Bernard DB. Interaction of fluconazole and cyclosporin. Annals of Internal Medicine 110: 844, 1989
Symonds WT, O’Connor G, Nix DE. Focus on itraconazole: a broad-spectrum antifungal agent for treatment of blastomycosis and histoplasmosis. Hospital Formulary 28: 23–33, 1993
Takeda M, Nishinuma K, Yamashita S, Matsubayashi T, Tanino S, et al. Serum haloperidol levels of schizophrenics receiving treatment for tuberculosis. Clinical Neuropharmacology 9: 386–397, 1986
Thompson MIB, Russo ME, Saxon BJ, Atkinthor E, Matsen JM. Gentamicin inactivation by piperacillin or carbenicillin in patients with end-stage renal disease. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 21: 268–273, 1982
Toon S, Hopkins KJ, Garstang FM, Aarons L, Sedman A, et al. Enoxacin-warfarin interaction: pharmacokinetic and stereochemical aspects. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 42: 33–41, 1987
Toon S, Low LK, Gibaldi M, Trager WF, O’Reilly RA, et al. The warfarin-sulfinpyrazone interaction: stereochemical considerations. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 39: 15–24, 1986
Trapnell CB, Lavelle JP, O’Leary C, James DS, Li R, et al. Rifabutin does not alter fluconazole pharmacokinetics. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 53: 196 (abstract no. PII-106), 1993
Trenk D, Brett W, Johnchen E, Birnbaum D. Time course of cyclosporin/itraconazole interaction. Lancet 2: 1335–1336, 1987
Tucker RM, Denning DW, Hanson LH, Rinaldi MG, Graybill JR, et al. Interaction of azoles with rifampin, phenytoin, and carbamazepine: in vitro and clinical observations. Clinical Infectious Diseases 14: 165–174, 1992
Turgeon DK, Normolle DP, Leichtman AB, Annesley TM, Smith DE, et al. Erythromycin breath test predicts oral clearance of cyclosporine in kidney transplant recipients. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 52: 471–478, 1992
Uber WE, Brundage RC, White RL, Brundage DM, Bromley HR. In vivo inactivation of tobramycin by piperacillin. DICP — Annals of Pharmacotherapy 25: 357–359, 1991
Udall JA. Drug interference with warfarin therapy. Clinical Medicine 77: 20, 1970
Ulrich B, Frey FJ, Speck RF, Frey BM. Pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of ketoconazole-prednisolone interaction. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 260: 487–490, 1992
Valsalan VC, Cooper GL. Carbamazepine intoxication caused by interaction with isoniazid. British Medical Journal 285: 261–262, 1982
Van Der Meer JWM, Keuning JJ, Scheijgrond HW, Heykants J, Van Cutsem J, et al. The influence of gastric acidity on the bioavailability of ketoconazole. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 6: 552–554, 1980
Van Dijke CPH, Weber JCP. Interaction between oral contraceptives and griseofulvin. British Medical Journal 288: 1125–1126, 1984
Venkatesan K. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions with rifampicin. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 22: 47–65, 1992
Vincon G, Albin H, Demotes-Mainard F, Guyot M, Bistue C, et al. Effects of josamycin on carbamazepine kinetics. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 32: 321–323, 1987
Vlasses PH, Kosoglou T, Chase SL, Greenspan AJ, Lottes S, et al. Trimethoprim inhibition of the renal clearance of procainamide and n-acetylprocainamide. Archives of Internal Medicine 149: 1350–1353, 1989
Waite NM, Rutledge DR, Warbasse LH, Edwards DJ. Disposition of the (+) and (−) isomers of metoprolol following ciprofloxacin treatment. Pharmacotherapy 10: 236 (Abstract no. 33), 1990
Warot D, Bergougnan L, Lamiable D, Berlin I, Bensimon G, et al. Troleandomycin-triazolam interaction in healthy volunteers: pharmacokinetic and psychometric evaluation. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 32: 389–393, 1987
Watkins PB. Role of cytochromes P450 in drug metabolism and hepatotoxicity. Seminars in Liver Disease 10: 235–250, 1990
Watkins PB. Drug metabolism by cytochromes P450 in the liver and small bowel. Gastroenterology Clinics of North America 21: 511–526, 1992
Watkins PB, Wrighton SA, Schuetz EG, Molowa DT, Guzelian PS. Identification of glucocorticoid-inducible cytochromes P-450 in the intestinal mucosa of rats and man. Journal of Clinical Investigation 80: 1029–1036, 1987
Weibert RT, Lorentz SM, Townsend RJ, Cook CE, Klauber MR, et al. Effect of erythromycin in patients receiving long-term warfarin therapy. Clinical Pharmacy 8: 210–214, 1989
Williams SJ, Baird-Lambert J, Farrell GC. Inhibition of theophylline metabolism by interferon. Lancet 2: 939–941, 1987
Williams TW, Yuk JH. Drug interaction with quinolone antibiotics in an intensive care unit. Archives of Internal Medicine 151: 2485, 1991
Wing LM, Miners JO. Cotrimoxazole as an inhibitor of oxidative drug metabolism: effects of trimethoprim and sulphamethoxazole separately and combined on tolbutamide disposition. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 20: 482–485, 1985
Wijnands WJA, Vree TB, Van Herwaarden CLA. The influence of quinolone derivatives on theophylline clearance. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 22: 677–683, 1986
Wong YY, Ludden TM, Bell RD. Effect of erythromycin on carbamazepine kinetics. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 33: 460–464, 1983
Woosley RL, Chen Y, Freiman JP, Gillis RA. Mechanism of the cardiotoxic actions of terfenadine. Journal of the American Medical Association 269: 1532–1536, 1993
Wright JM, Stokes EF, Sweeney VP. Isoniazid-induced carbamazepine toxicity and vice versa. New England Journal of Medicine 307: 1325–1327, 1982
Wrighton SA, Stevens JC. The human hepatic cytochromes P450 involved in drug metabolism. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 22: 1–21, 1992
Yee G, McGuire T. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions with cyclosporin (part I). Clinical Pharmacokinetics 19: 319–332, 1990
Yeh J, Soo SC, Summerton C, Richardson C. Potentiation of action of warfarin by itraconazole. British Medical Journal 29: 301, 1990
Yuk JH, Nightingale CH, Quintiliani R, Yeston NS, Orlando R, et al. Absorption of ciprofloxacin administrated through a nasogastric or a nasoduodenal tube in volunteers and patients receiving enteral nutrition. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 13: 99–102, 1990
Yun CH, Okerholm RA, Guengerich FP. Oxidation of the antihistamine drug terfenadine in human liver microsomes: role of cytochrome P4503A(4) in N-dealkylation and C-hydroxylation. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 21: 403–409, 1993
Zarfin Y, Koren G, Maresky D, Perlman M, MacLeod T. Possible indomethacin-aminoglycoside interaction in preterm infants. Journal of Pediatrics 106: 511–513, 1985
Zurcher RM, Frey B, Frey FJ. Impact of ketoconazole on the metabolism of prednisolone. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 45: 366–372, 1989
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gillum, J.G., Israel, D.S. & Polk, R.E. Pharmacokinetic Drug Interactions with Antimicrobial Agents. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 25, 450–482 (1993). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-199325060-00005
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-199325060-00005