Resting Energy Expenditure and Related Factors in 6- to 9-Year-Old Southern African Children of Diverse Population Groups
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design, Population and Sampling
2.2. Data Collection and Management
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Description of the Sample
3.2. Factors Related to Measured REE
3.3. Measured and Adjusted REE
4. Discussion
4.1. Age
4.2. Sex
4.3. Phenotype
4.4. Population Group
4.5. Physical Activity
4.6. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- World Health Organization. Obesity and Overweight 2020 [homepage on the Internet]. 2020 [Updated April 2020, Cited June 2020]. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight (accessed on 4 November 2020).
- World Health Organization. Assessing and Managing Children at Primary Health-Care Facilities to Prevent Overweight and Obesity in the Context of the Double Burden of Malnutrition; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2017; Available online: http://who.int/entity/nutrition/publications/guidelines/children-primaryhealthcare-obesity-dbm/en/ (accessed on 27 November 2017).
- Caprio, S.; Daniels, S.R.; Drewnowski, A.; Kaufman, F.R.; Palinkas, L.A.; Rosenbloom, A.L.; Schwimmer, J.B. Influence of race, ethnicity, and culture on childhood obesity: Implications for prevention and treatment: A consensus statement of Shaping America’s Health and the Obesity Society. Diabetes Care 2008, 31, 2211–2221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shisana, O.; Labadarios, D.; Rehle, T.; Simbayi, I.; Zuma, K.; Dhansay, A.; Reddy, P.; Parker, W.; Hoosain, E.; Naidoo, P.; et al. South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES-1); HSRC Press: Cape Town, South African, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Human Sciences Research Council. Strategic Plan for the Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases 2013–2017; HSRC: Pretoria, South Africa, 2013; Document No.: RP06/2013. [Google Scholar]
- Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Achamrah, N.; Delsoglio, M.; De Waele, E.; Berger, M.M.; Pichard, C. Indirect calorimetry: The 6 main issues. Clin. Nutr. 2020, 40, 4–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Lany, J.P.; Bray, G.A.; Harsha, D.W.; Volaufova, J. Energy expenditure in preadolescent African American and white boys and girls: The Baton Rouge Children’s Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 75, 705–713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jakicic, J.M.; Wing, R.R. Differences in resting energy expenditure in African-American vs Caucasian overweight females. Int. J. Obes. 1998, 22, 236–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Johnson, M.S.; Figueroa-Colon, R.; Herd, S.L.; Fields, D.A.; Sun, M.; Hunter, G.R.; Goran, M.I. Aerobic fitness, not energy expenditure, influences subsequent increase in adiposity in black and white children. Pediatrics 2000, 106, E50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kaplan, A.S.; Zemel, Z.B.; Stallings, V.A. Differences in REE in prepubertal black children and white children. J. Pediatr. 1996, 129, 643–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McDuffie, J.R.; Adler-Wailes, D.C.; Elberg, J.; Steinberg, E.N.; Fallon, E.M.; Tershakovec, A.M.; Arslanian, S.A.; Delany, J.P.; Bray, G.A.; Yanovski, J.A. Prediction equations for resting energy expenditure in overweight and normal-weight black and white children123. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 80, 365–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Müller, M.J.; Geisler, C. From the past to future: From energy expenditure to energy intake to energy expenditure. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 71, 358–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adzika Nsatimba, P.A.; Pathak, K.; Soares, M.J. Ethnic differences in resting metabolic rate, respiratory quotient and body temperature: A comparison of Africans and European Australians. Eur. J. Nutr. 2016, 55, 1831–1838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manini, T.M.; Patel, K.V.; Bauer, D.C.; Ziv, E.; Schoeller, D.A.; Mackey, D.C.; Li, R.; Newman, A.B.; Nalls, M.; Zmuda, J.M.; et al. European ancestry and resting metabolic rate in older African Americans. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 65, 663–667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Olivier, N.; Wenhold, F.A.M.; Becker, P. Resting energy expenditure of black overweight women in South Africa is lower than of white women. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 2016, 69, 24–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wenhold, F.A.M.; Pretorius, A.; Piderit, M.; Becker, P.J. Race/ethnicity differences in resting energy expenditure of South African men and women. In Proceedings of the 27th Biennial Congress of the Nutrition Society of South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa, 5–7 September 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Broadney, M.M.; Shareef, F.; Marwitz, S.E.; Brady, S.M.; Yanovski, S.Z.; DeLany, J.P.; Yanovski, J.A. Evaluating the contribution of differences in lean mass compartments for resting energy expenditure in African American and Caucasian American children. Pediatr. Obes. 2018, 13, 413–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Morrison, J.A.; Shumei, S.G.; Specker, B.; Chumlea, W.M.C.; Yanovski, S.Z.; Yanovski, J.A. Assessing the body composition of 6–17-year-old black and white girls in field studies. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 2001, 13, 249–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, M.; Gower, B.A.; Nagy, T.R.; Trowbridge, C.A.; Dezenberg, C.; Goran, M.I. Total, resting, and activity-related energy expenditures are similar in Caucasian and African-American children. Am. J. Physiol. 1998, 274, E232–E237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goran, M.I.; Kaskoun, M.; Johnson, R. Determinants of resting energy expenditure in young children. J. Pediatr. 1994, 125, 362–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lazzer, S.; Bedogni, G.; Lafortuna, C.L.; Marazzi, N.; Busti, C.; Galli, R.; De Col, A.; Agosti, F.; Sartorio, A. Relationship between basal metabolic rate, gender, age, and body composition in 8780 white obese subjects. Obesity 2010, 18, 71–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maffeis, C.; Schutz, Y.; Micciolo, R.; Zoccante, L.; Pinelli, L. Resting metabolic rate in six- to ten-year-old obese and nonobese children. J. Pediatr. 1993, 122, 556–562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biddle, S.J.; Gorely, T.; Pearson, N.; Bull, F.C. An assessment of self-reported physical activity instruments in young people for population surveillance: Project ALPHA. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2011, 8, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shook, R.P.; Hand, G.A.; Wang, X.; Paluch, A.E.; Moran, R.; Hebert, J.R.; Swift, D.L.; Lavie, C.J.; Blair, S.N. Low fitness partially explains resting metabolic rate differences between African American and white women. Am. J. Med. 2014, 127, 436–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Speakman, J.R.; Selman, C. Physical activity and resting metabolic rate. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2003, 62, 621–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frankenfield, D.C.; Coleman, A. Recovery to resting metabolic state after walking. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2009, 109, 1914–1916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Said-Mohamed, R.; Bernard, J.Y.; Ndzana, A.C.; Pasquet, P. Is overweight in stunted preschool children in Cameroon related to reductions in fat oxidation, resting energy expenditure and physical activity? PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e39007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lee, C. “Race” and “ethnicity” in biomedical research: How do scientists construct and explain differences in health? Soc. Sci. Med. 2009, 68, 1183–1190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roman-Vinas, B.; Chaput, J.P.; Katzmarzyk, P.T.; Fogelholm, M.; Lambert, E.V.; Maher, C.; Maia, J.; Olds, T.; Onywera, V.; Sarmiento, O.L.; et al. Proportion of children meeting recommendations for 24-hour movement guidelines and associations with adiposity in a 12-country study. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2016, 13, 123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Broyles, S.T.; Drazba, K.T.; Church, T.S.; Chaput, J.P.; Fogelholm, M.; Hu, G.; Kuriyan, R.; Kurpad, A.; Lambert, E.V.; Maher, C.; et al. Development and reliability of an audit tool to assess the school physical activity environment across 12 countries. Int. J. Obes. Suppl. 2015, 5 (Suppl. 2), S36–S42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Chawla, N.; Thamarangsi, T. Effectiveness of school built environment on physical activity in children: A systematic review. J. Health Sci. 2014, 23, 739–752. [Google Scholar]
- Zaltauske, V.; Petrauskiene, A. Associations between built environment and physical activity of 7–8-year-old children. Cross-sectional results from the Lithuanian COSI study. Medicina 2016, 52, 366–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- World Health Organization. A Guide for Population-Based Approaches to Increasing Levels of Physical Activity: Implementation of the WHO Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2007; Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43612https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/physical-activity-promotion-2007.pdf (accessed on 30 August 2019).
- Fullmer, S.; Benson-Davies, S.; Earthman, C.P.; Frankenfield, D.C.; Gradwell, E.; Lee, P.S.; Piemonte, T.; Trabulsi, J. Evidence analysis library review of best practices for performing indirect calorimetry in healthy and non-critically ill individuals. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2015, 115, 1417–1446.e2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mellecker, R.R.; McManus, A.M. Measurement of resting energy expenditure in healthy children. J. Parenter. Enteral. Nutr. 2009, 33, 640–645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carpenter, A.; Pencharz, P.; Mouzaki, M. Accurate estimation of energy requirements of young patients. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2015, 60, 4–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES): Anthropometry Procedures Manual; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Seca Science Center. Seca Science Center Deutschland [Homepage on the Internet]. 2020 [Updated 2020]. Available online: https://science.seca.com/ (accessed on 6 June 2020).
- World Health Organization. Growth Reference Data for 5–19 Years: World Health Organization [Homepage on the Internet]. 2007 [Updated 2020]. Available online: https://www.who.int/growthref/en/ (accessed on 8 May 2020).
- Horlick, M.; Arpadi, S.M.; Bethel, J.; Wang, J.; Moye, J., Jr.; Cuff, P.; Pierson, R.N., Jr.; Kotler, D. Bioelectrical impedance analysis models for prediction of total body water and fat-free mass in healthy and HIV-infected children and adolescents. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 76, 991–999. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cosmed. Cosmed Quark RMR [Homepage on the Internet]. 2020. [Updated 2020, Cited April 2020]. Available online: https://www.cosmed.com/en/products/indirect-calorimetry/quark-rmr (accessed on 10 August 2020).
- Irving, C.J.; Eggett, D.L.; Fullmer, S. Comparing steady state to time interval and non-steady state measurements of resting metabolic rate. Nutr. Clin. Pract. 2017, 32, 77–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jackson, D.M.; Pace, L.; Speakman, J.R. The measurement of resting metabolic rate in preschool children. Obesity 2007, 15, 1930–1932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Clemes, S.A.; Biddle, S.J. The use of pedometers for monitoring physical activity in children and adolescents: Measurement considerations. J. Phys. Act. Health 2013, 10, 249–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lubans, D.R.; Plotnikoff, R.C.; Miller, A.; Scott, J.J.; Thompson, D.; Tudor-Locke, C. Using pedometers for measuring and increasing physical activity in children and adolescents. Am. J. Lifestyle Med. 2014, 9, 418–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scott, J.J.; Morgan, P.J.; Plotnikoff, R.C.; Trost, S.G.; Lubans, D.R. Adolescent pedometer protocols: Examining reactivity, tampering and participants’ perceptions. J. Sports Sci. 2014, 32, 183–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vincent, S.D.; Pangrazi, R.P. Does reactivity exist in children when measuring activity levels with pedometers? Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 2002, 14, 56–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Food and Agriculture Organization. Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2001; Available online: http://www.fao.org/3/y5686e/y5686e00.htm (accessed on 9 September 2018).
- Herrmann, S.D.; McMurray, R.G.; Kim, Y.; Willis, E.A.; Kang, M.; McCurdy, T. The influence of physical characteristics on the resting energy expenditure of youth: A meta-analysis. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 2017, 29, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tershakovec, A.M.; Kuppler, K.M.; Zemel, B.; Stallings, V.A. Age, sex, ethnicity, body composition, and resting energy expenditure of obese African American and white children and adolescents. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 75, 867–871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kaneko, K.; Ito, C.; Koizumi, K.; Watanabe, S.; Umeda, Y.; Ishikawa-Takata, K. Resting energy expenditure (REE) in six- to seventeen-year-old Japanese children and adolescents. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 2013, 59, 299–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Labadarios, D.; Swart, R.; Maunder, E.; Kruger, H.S.; Gericke, G.; Kuzwayo, P.M.N.; Ntsie, P.R.; Steyn, N.P.; Schloss, I.; Dhansay, M.A.; et al. Executive summary of the National Food Consumption Survey Fortification Baseline (NFCS-FB-1) South Africa, 2005. S. Afr. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 21 (Suppl. 2), 247–300. [Google Scholar]
- Müller, M.J.; Bosy-Westphal, A.; Later, W.; Haas, V.; Heller, M. Functional body composition: Insights into the regulation of energy metabolism and some clinical applications. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 63, 1045–1056. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Müller, M.J.; Bosy-Westphal, A.; Kutzner, D.; Heller, M. Metabolically active components of fat-free mass and resting energy expenditure in humans: Recent lessons from imaging technologies. Obes. Rev. 2002, 3, 113–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Müller, M.J.; Wang, Z.; Heymsfield, S.B.; Schautz, B.; Bosy-Westphal, A. Advances in the understanding of specific metabolic rates of major organs and tissues in humans. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care. 2013, 16, 501–508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Midorikawa, T.; Hikihara, Y.; Ohta, M.; Ando, T.; Torii, S.; Sakamoto, S.; Tanaka, S. The relationship between organ-tissue body composition and resting energy expenditure in prepubertal children. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2019, 73, 1149–1154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reneau, J.; Obi, B.; Moosreiner, A.; Kidambi, S. Do we need race-specific resting metabolic rate prediction equations? Nutri. Diabetes 2019, 9, 21–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hill, J.O.; Wyatt, H.R.; Reed, G.W.; Peters, J.C. Obesity and the environment: Where do we go from here? Science 2003, 299, 853–855. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gallagher, D.; Albu, J.; He, Q.; Heshka, S.; Boxt, L.; Krasnow, N.; Elia, M. Small organs with a high metabolic rate explain lower resting energy expenditure in African American than in white adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 1062–1067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hanks, L.J.; Gutiérrez, O.M.; Ashraf, A.P.; Casazza, K. Bone mineral content as a driver of energy expenditure in prepubertal and early pubertal boys. J. Pediat. 2015, 166, 1397–1403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gilliat-Wimberly, M.; Manore, M.M.; Woolf, K.; Swan, P.D.; Carroll, S.S. Effects of habitual physical activity on the resting metabolic rates and body compositions of women aged 35 to 50 years. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2001, 101, 1181–1188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hills, A.P.; Mokhtar, N.; Byrne, N.M. Assessment of physical activity and energy expenditure: An overview of objective measures. Front. Nutr. 2014, 1, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sardinha, L.B.; Judice, P.B. Usefulness of motion sensors to estimate energy expenditure in children and adults: A narrative review of studies using DLW. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 71, 331–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Black | White | Total Sample | |
---|---|---|---|
Girls: n (%) | 27 (48) | 29 (52) | 56 |
Boys: n (%) | 22 (58) | 16 (42) | 38 |
Total: n (%) | 49 (52) | 45 (48) | 94 |
Sociodemographic Variable | Black | White | Total Sample | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Income category | Upper quintile: n (%) | 39 (81) | 45 (100) | 84 (90) |
3rd quintile: n (%) | 2 (4) | 0 | 2 (2) | |
Lower quintile: n (%) | 2 (4) | 0 | 2 (2) | |
Did not indicate: n (%) | 5 (11) | 0 | 5 (6) | |
Level of education | High school: n (%) | 3 (6) | 0 | 3 (3) |
Tertiary education: n (%) | 44 (92) | 45 (100) | 89 (96) | |
Did not indicate: n (%) | 1 (2) | 0 | 1 (1) | |
Home ownership | Home owners: n (%) | 35 (73) | 35 (78) | 70 (75) |
Renting: n (%) | 11 (23) | 10 (22) | 21 (23) | |
Live with family/friends: n (%) | 2 (4) | 0 | 2 (2) | |
Number of members per household | Two: n (%) | 2 (4) | 0 | 2 (2) |
Three–five: n (%) | 39 (81) | 38 (85) | 77 (82) | |
Six–eight: n (%) | 7 (15) | 6 (13) | 13 (15) | |
Nine or more: n (%) | 0 | 1 (2) | 1 (1) | |
Household services | Water, sanitation, electricity supply: n (%) | 48 (100) | 45 (100) | 93 (100) |
Sex | Mean b | 95% CI c | Sex Difference (Boys–Girls) | P-Value d | Population Group | Mean b | 95% CI c | Population Difference (Black–White) | P-Value d | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
WFA z-score | Girls | 0.49 | (0.23; 0.75) | 0.00 | 0.997 | Black | 0.38 | (0.10; 0.66) | −0.22 | 0.270 |
Boys | 0.49 | (0.17; 0.81) | White | 0.61 | (0.32; 0.90) | |||||
HFA z-score | Girls | 0.53 | (0.31; 0.75) | 0.04 | 0.820 | Black | 0.08 | (−0.16; 0.32) | −0.97 | <0.001 |
Boys | 0.57 | (0.30; 0.84) | White | 1.05 | (0.81; 1.30) | |||||
BMI-FA z-score | Girls | 0.23 | (−0.05; 0.52) | −0.06 | 0.795 | Black | 0.43 | (0.12; 0.73) | 0.46 | 0.042 |
Boys | 0.17 | (−0.17; 0.52) | White | −0.03 | (−0.35; 0.29) | |||||
FFM (kg) | Girls | 20.14 | (19.54; 20.74) | 1.73 | <0.001 | Black | 20.15 | (19.50; 20.79) | −1.45 | 0.003 |
Boys | 21.87 | (21.14;22.61) | White | 21.60 | (20.92; 22.27) | |||||
FFMI (kg/m2) | Girls | 12.01 | (11.80; 12.22) | 0.93 | <0.001 | Black | 12.28 | (12.06; 12.50) | −0.23 | 0.166 |
Boys | 12.94 | (12.69; 13.20) | White | 12.51 | (12.27; 12.74) | |||||
FM (kg) | Girls | 7.49 | (6.48; 8.50) | −1.71 | 0.035 | Black | 7.82 | (6.74; 8.89) | 2.12 | 0.008 |
Boys | 5.78 | (4.55; 7.01) | White | 5.70 | (4.57; 6.82) | |||||
FMI (kg/m2) | Girls | 4.44 | (3.92; 4.96) | −1.08 | 0.010 | Black | 4.66 | (4.11; 5.22) | 1.37 | <0.001 |
Boys | 3.37 | (2.73; 4.00) | White | 3.29 | (2.71; 3.87) | |||||
Average steps/day | Girls | 10,212 | (9519; 10,906) | 1220 | 0.029 | Black | 9280 | (8538; 10,022) | −2979 | <0.001 |
Boys | 11,433 | (10,588; 12,277) | White | 12,258 | (11,483; 13,033) |
Variable | Sex | R b | P-Value c | Population Group | R b | P-Value c | Total Sample | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R b | P-Value c | |||||||
Age | Girls | −0.27 | 0.050 | Black | 0.34 | 0.021 | −0.08 | 0.440 |
Boys | 0.16 | 0.350 | White | −0.34 | 0.016 | |||
WFA z-score | Girls | 0.32 | 0.016 | Black | 0.56 | <0.001 | 0.37 | <0.001 |
Boys | 0.41 | 0.011 | White | −0.02 | 0.881 | |||
HFA z-score | Girls | 0.37 | 0.006 | Black | 0.32 | 0.026 | 0.36 | <0.001 |
Boys | 0.36 | 0.025 | White | 0.13 | 0.383 | |||
BMI-FA z-score | Girls | 0.15 | 0.281 | Black | 0.55 | <0.001 | 0.21 | 0.045 |
Boys | 0.27 | 0.100 | White | −0.10 | 0.520 | |||
FFM (kg) | Girls | 0.35 | 0.008 | Black | 0.39 | 0.006 | 0.45 | <0.001 |
Boys | 0.55 | <0.001 | White | 0.42 | 0.004 | |||
FFMI (kg/m2) | Girls | 0.35 | 0.008 | Black | 0.44 | <0.001 | 0.30 | 0.003 |
Boys | 0.28 | 0.089 | White | 0.09 | 0.581 | |||
FM (kg) | Girls | 0.06 | 0.669 | Black | 0.39 | 0.005 | 0.17 | 0.105 |
Boys | 0.28 | 0.086 | White | 0.05 | 0.752 | |||
FMI (kg/m2) | Girls | 0.03 | 0.803 | Black | 0.41 | 0.004 | 0.13 | 0.227 |
Boys | 0.24 | 0.153 | White | −0.04 | 0.772 | |||
Average steps/day | Girls | 0.09 | 0.488 | Black | −0.09 | 0.558 | 0.05 | 0.651 |
Boys | −0.01 | 0.958 | White | −0.16 | 0.286 |
REE-Related Variable | Sex | Mean b | 95% CI c | Sex Difference (Boys–Girls) | P-Value d | Population Group | Mean b | 95% CI c | Population Difference (Black–White) | P-Value d |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Measured REE (kcal/day) | Girls | 1005 | (948; 1062) | 41 | 0.375 | Black | 951 | (890; 1013) | −146 | 0.002 |
Boys | 1045 | (976; 1115) | White | 1097 | (1033; 1161) | |||||
REE adjusted e for: | ||||||||||
Age | Girls | 1005 | (947; 1063) | 41 | 0.377 | Black | 951 | (889; 1014) | −146 | 0.002 |
Boys | 1045 | (975; 1116) | White | 1097 | (1032; 1163) | |||||
WFA z-score | Girls | 1005 | (951; 1059) | 41 | 0.347 | Black | 960 | (902; 1018) | −128 | 0.003 |
Boys | 1046 | (980; 1111) | White | 1088 | (1028; 1149) | |||||
HFA z-score | Girls | 1006 | (950; 1061) | 38 | 0.393 | Black | 981 | (917; 1046) | −82 | 0.108 |
Boys | 1044 | (975; 1112) | White | 1064 | (996; 1132) | |||||
BMI-FA z-score | Girls | 1004 | (949; 1059) | 44 | 0.316 | Black | 939 | (879; 999) | −173 | <0.001 |
Boys | 1048 | (981; 1115) | White | 1112 | (1050; 1174) | |||||
FFM (kg) | Girls | 1031 | (977; 1086) | −25 | 0.582 | Black | 977 | (919; 1036) | −91 | 0.039 |
Boys | 1006 | (939; 1074) | White | 1069 | (1008; 1129) | |||||
FFMI (kg/m2) | Girls | 1034 | (975; 1094) | −31 | 0.549 | Black | 961 | (901; 1020) | −128 | 0.004 |
Boys | 1004 | (930; 1078) | White | 1089 | (1027; 1151) | |||||
FM (kg) | Girls | 993 | (938; 1049) | 70 | 0.124 | Black | 934 | (874; 994) | −182 | <0.001 |
Boys | 1063 | (995; 1131) | White | 1116 | (1053; 1179) | |||||
FMI (kg/m2) | Girls | 991 | (935;1048) | 74 | 0.107 | Black | 931 | (870;992) | −189 | <0.001 |
Boys | 1066 | (997;1135) | White | 1120 | (1056;1184) | |||||
Average Steps/day | Girls | 1000 | (942;1057) | 55 | 0.244 | Black | 936 | (870;1001) | −180 | <0.001 |
Boys | 1054 | (983;1125) | White | 1116 | (1046;1185) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Pretorius, A.; Wood, P.; Becker, P.; Wenhold, F. Resting Energy Expenditure and Related Factors in 6- to 9-Year-Old Southern African Children of Diverse Population Groups. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1983. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13061983
Pretorius A, Wood P, Becker P, Wenhold F. Resting Energy Expenditure and Related Factors in 6- to 9-Year-Old Southern African Children of Diverse Population Groups. Nutrients. 2021; 13(6):1983. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13061983
Chicago/Turabian StylePretorius, Adeline, Paola Wood, Piet Becker, and Friedeburg Wenhold. 2021. "Resting Energy Expenditure and Related Factors in 6- to 9-Year-Old Southern African Children of Diverse Population Groups" Nutrients 13, no. 6: 1983. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13061983