Oxidative Stress Is Increased in Combined Oral Contraceptives Users and Is Positively Associated with High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design and Setting of the Study
2.2. Population
2.3. Ethical Considerations
2.4. Oxidative Stress Assessment
2.5. C-Reactive Protein Measurement
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Combined Oral Contraception
3.2. Stratified Values of Oxidative Stress and hsCRP
4. Discussion
4.1. Oxidative Stress
4.2. C-Reactive Protein
4.3. Correlation between Oxidative Stress and hsCRP
4.4. Impact of the Composition of the Contraceptive Pill
4.5. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Sample Availability
Abbreviations
BMI | Body mass index |
CI | Confidence interval |
CVD | Cardiovascular disease |
FORT | Free oxygen radical test |
hsCRP | High-sensitivity C-reactive protein |
IQR | Interquartile range: from 25th to 75th percentile |
NF-kB | Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells |
Nrf2 | Nuclear erytroid 2-like factor-2 |
OC | Oral combined contraceptive |
OR | Odds ratio |
PCOS | Polycystic ovary syndrome |
ROS | Reactive oxygen species |
rs | Spearman’s Rho correlation coefficient |
VTE | Venous thromboembolism |
References
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Characteristic | OC-Users a (n = 100) | Non-OC-Users a (n = 190) | p Value |
---|---|---|---|
Age a (years) | 22.7 ± 3.50 | 23.4 ± 5.23 | 0.887 b |
Weight a (kg) | 60.1 ± 7.59 | 60.3 ± 8.43 | 0.921 b |
Height a (m) | 1.68 ± 5.94 | 1.69 ± 0.07 | 0.752 b |
Body-mass index a (kg/m2) | 21.2 ± 2.24 | 21.2 ± 2.35 | 0.993 b |
University education, n (%) | 89 (89.0) | 151 (79.5) | 0.041c |
Married, n (%) | 5 (5.0) | 19 (10.0) | 0.142 c |
Nulliparity, n (%) | 99 (99.0) | 185 (97.4) | 0.668 d |
Smokers, n (%) | 21 (21.0) | 27 (14.2) | 0.139 c |
Cigarettes/day a | 0.83 ± 2.16 | 0.75 ± 2.68 | 0.166 b |
Coffee drinkers, n (%) | 78 (78.0) | 154 (81.1) | 0.537 c |
Coffee cups e/day | 1.2 ± 1.02 | 1.5 ± 1.19 | 0.055 b |
Nutritional supplement use, n (%) | 23 (23.0) | 29 (15.3) | 0.103 c |
Oxidative stress (FORT Units) | 472 (403–532) | 270 (229–308) | <0.001b |
hsCRP (mg/L) | 1.31 (0.79–3.34) | 0.35 (0.17–0.72) | <0.001b |
Biomarker | 2° Generation OC-Users a (n = 10) | 3° Generation OC-Users a (n = 55) | 4° Generation OC-Users a (n = 35) | p Value b 2° vs. 3° Generation | p Value b 2° vs. 4° Generation | p Value b 3° vs. 4° Generation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Oxidative stress (FORT Units) | 366 (332–434) | 468 (416–530) | 491 (434–566) | 0.009 | 0.008 | 0.236 |
hsCRP (mg/L) | 1.06 (0.83–3.05) | 1.21 (0.70–3.39) | 1.67 (0.86–3.34) | 0.592 | 0.445 | 0.898 |
Measure | OC-Users (n = 100) N (%) | Non-OC-Users (n = 190) N (%) | OR a (95% CI) | p Value a | Adjusted OR b (95%CI) | p Value b |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FORT ≥ 310 Units | 92 (92.0) | 45 (23.7) | 37.1 (16.7–82.1) | <0.001 | 100 (30.1–334) | <0.001 |
FORT ≥ 400 Units | 77 (77.0) | 3 (1.6) | 209 (60.9–715) | <0.001 | 342 (69.4–1688) | <0.001 |
hsCRP < 0.5 mg/L | 16 (16.0) | 118 (62.1) | 0.12 (0.06–0.21) | <0.001 | 0.07 (0.03–0.16) | <0.001 |
hsCRP ≥ 2.0 mg/L | 41 (41.0) | 18 (9.5) | 6.64 (3.54–12.4) | <0.001 | 11.1 (4.90–25.2) | <0.001 |
hsCRP ≥ 3.0 mg/L | 33 (33.0) | 13 (6.8) | 6.71 (3.33–13.5) | <0.001 | 8.05 (3.47–18.7) | <0.001 |
Measure | FORT ≥ 310 n = 137 n (%) | FORT < 310 n = 153 n (%) | OR (95%CI) p Value | FORT ≥ 400 n = 80 n (%) | FORT < 400 n = 210 n (%) | OR (95%CI) p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
hsCRP < 0.5 mg/L | 26 (19.0) | 108 (70.6) | 0.10 (0.06–0.17)<0.001 | 7 (8.8) | 127 (60.5) | 0.06 (0.03–0.14)<0.001 |
hsCRP ≥ 2.0 mg/L | 49 (35.8) | 10 (6.5) | 7.96 (3.84–16.5)<0.001 | 38 (47.5) | 21 (10.0) | 8.14 (4.34–15.3)<0.001 |
hsCRP ≥ 3.0 mg/L | 39 (28.5) | 7 (4.6) | 8.30 (3.57–19.3)<0.001 | 32 (40.0) | 14 (6.7) | 9.33 (4.62–18.8)<0.001 |
Characteristic | All Women (n = 290) rs, p Value | OC-Users (n = 100) rs, p Value | Non-OC-Users (n = 190) rs, p Value |
---|---|---|---|
hsCRP (mg/L) | 0.622, <0.001 | 0.442, <0.001 | 0.426, <0.001 |
Age, years | 0.041, 0.489 | 0.047, 0.644 | 0.080, 0.274 |
Weight, kg | 0.092, 0.122 | −0.011, 0.910 | 0.207, 0.005 |
Height, cm | −0.013, 0.822 | −0.103, 0.307 | 0.027, 0.715 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 0.118, 0.047 | 0.061, 0.547 | 0.252, 0.001 |
Cigarettes/day | 0.084, 0.152 | −0.002, 0.985 | 0.029, 0.696 |
Coffee cups a/day | −0.099, 0.098 | −0.118, 0.251 | 0.029, 0.701 |
Tea cups/day | 0.079, 0.188 | 0.078, 0.447 | −0.046, 0.540 |
Milk cups/week | 0.042, 0.517 b | 0.135, 0.204 d | 0.032, 0.700 f |
Yogurt, 125 g servings/week | −0.035, 0.593 b | −0.097, 0.364 d | −0.053, 0.521 f |
Cheese, 50 g servings/week | −0.034, 0.602 b | −0.006, 0.955 d | 0.040, 0.630 f |
Rice, 80 g servings/week | −0.031, 0.634 b | 0.130, 0.222 d | −0.138, 0.094 f |
Pasta, 100 g servings/week | 0.047, 0.473 b | −0.122, 0.252 d | 0.103, 0.210 f |
Fruits, 200 g servings/week | −0.136, 0.035 b | −0.167, 0.115 d | −0.129, 0.116 f |
Tomatoe/eggplant/pepper, plates/week | 0.009, 0.891 b | −0.133, 0.224 d | −0.008, 0.930 f |
Fresh vegetables, plates/week | −0.087, 0.180 b | −0.066, 0.537 d | −0.062, 0.453 f |
Legumes, plates/week | −0.023, 0.726 | −0.111, 0.298 d | 0.029, 0.727 f |
Eggs, number/week | −0.002, 0.972 b | −0.051, 0.641 d | 0.051, 0.542 f |
Red meat, 150 g servings/week | −0.190, 0.004 b | −0.031, 0.777 d | −0.222, 0.007 f |
Total meat (any type), 150 g servings/week | −0.141, 0.029 b | 0.022, 0.839 d | −0.090, 0.273 f |
Sausages, 50 g servings/week | 0.000, 0.995 b | 0.043, 0.686 d | 0.054, 0.511 f |
Fish, 200 g servings/week | −0.143, 0.027 b | −0.039, 0.717 d | −0.164, 0.045 f |
Sweet cakes, 50 g servings/week | −0.055, 0.393 b | −0.025, 0.813 d | 0.072, 0.382 f |
Chocolate, 50 g servings/week | −0.132, 0.041 b | −0.050, 0.640 d | −0.180, 0.028 f |
Wine, 125 mL glasses/week | 0.033, 0.596 c | 0.046, 0.665 e | −0.005, 0.945 g |
Beer, 200 mL glasses/week | 0.080, 0.199 c | 0.096, 0.360 e | 0.057, 0.466 g |
Spirits, 40 mL glasses/week | −0.008, 0.900 c | −0.069, 0.510 e | 0.103, 0.190 g |
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Cauci, S.; Xodo, S.; Buligan, C.; Colaninno, C.; Barbina, M.; Barbina, G.; Francescato, M.P. Oxidative Stress Is Increased in Combined Oral Contraceptives Users and Is Positively Associated with High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein. Molecules 2021, 26, 1070. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26041070
Cauci S, Xodo S, Buligan C, Colaninno C, Barbina M, Barbina G, Francescato MP. Oxidative Stress Is Increased in Combined Oral Contraceptives Users and Is Positively Associated with High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein. Molecules. 2021; 26(4):1070. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26041070
Chicago/Turabian StyleCauci, Sabina, Serena Xodo, Cinzia Buligan, Chiara Colaninno, Mattia Barbina, Giuseppe Barbina, and Maria Pia Francescato. 2021. "Oxidative Stress Is Increased in Combined Oral Contraceptives Users and Is Positively Associated with High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein" Molecules 26, no. 4: 1070. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26041070