Introduction
Materials and methods
Study participants and procedure
Dietary record
Nutritional quality of each meal
Meal context
Basic characteristics
Statistical analysis
Results
Characteristics of the study participants and eating occasions
Variables | Male (n 111) | Female (n 111) |
---|---|---|
Age (years) | 51.7 ± 11.9 | 49.9 ± 10.7 |
Body height (cm) | 170.2 ± 6.3 | 158.4 ± 5.4 |
Body weight (kg) | 68.9 ± 11.9 | 56.9 ± 8.5 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 23.8 ± 3.6 | 22.7 ± 3.3 |
Education level, n (%) | ||
Junior high school or high school | 41 (36.9) | 28 (25.2) |
Junior college or technical school | 22 (19.8) | 55 (49.6) |
University or higher | 48 (43.2) | 28 (25.2) |
Smoking status, n (%) | ||
Never or former smoker | 76 (68.5) | 99 (89.2) |
Current smoker | 35 (31.5) | 12 (10.8) |
Energy intake (kcal/d) | 2067 ± 446 | 1552 ± 301 |
Energy reporting status2, n (%) | ||
Underreporting | 11 (9.9) | 10 (9.0) |
Plausible reporting | 100 (90.1) | 101 (91.0) |
Overreporting | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
HEI-2020 score (maximum: 100 points) | ||
Breakfast | 43.3 ± 12.4 | 45.7 ± 13.0 |
Lunch | 43.0 ± 9.8 | 46.5 ± 9.7 |
Dinner | 51.9 ± 8.2 | 52.0 ± 8.0 |
Overall diet (including snacks) | 49.4 ± 9.2 | 51.6 ± 9.0 |
Male | Female | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | N | % | ||
Meal type | |||||
Breakfast | 425 | 32.8 | 439 | 33.3 | |
Lunch | 426 | 32.9 | 436 | 33.1 | |
Dinner | 444 | 34.3 | 442 | 33.6 | |
Day type | |||||
Working or school day | 832 | 64.3 | 610 | 46.3 | |
Non-working day or non-school day | 463 | 35.8 | 707 | 53.7 | |
Eating location | |||||
At home | 987 | 76.2 | 1095 | 83.1 | |
Away from home | 308 | 23.8 | 222 | 16.9 | |
Eating companion | |||||
Alone | 556 | 42.9 | 394 | 29.9 | |
With someone | 739 | 57.1 | 923 | 70.1 | |
Screen-based activity while eating | |||||
No | 857 | 66.2 | 897 | 68.1 | |
Yes (watching TV, computer, or mobile phone) | 438 | 33.8 | 420 | 31.9 |
Factors associated with meal quality
Model 0 (null model) | Model 1 (eating occasion-level variables) | Model 2 (individual-level variables) | Model 3 (eating occasion- and individual-level variables) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fixed effect | ||||||
Intercept | 43.25 (42.11, 44.39)*** | 43.25 (42.11, 44.39)*** | 43.28 (42.38, 44.18)*** | 43.28 (42.38, 44.19)*** | ||
Eating occasion-level variables | ||||||
Meal type | Breakfast | - | Ref | - | Ref | |
Lunch | - | -1.81 (-3.42, -0.20)* | - | -1.81 (-3.42, -0.20)* | ||
Dinner | - | 6.77 (5.34, 8.20)*** | - | 6.77 (5.34, 8.20)*** | ||
Day type | Working or school day | - | Ref | - | Ref | |
Non-working day or non-school day | - | -0.20 (-2.17, 1.77) | - | -0.20 (-2.17, 1.77) | ||
Eating location | At home | - | Ref | - | Ref | |
Away from home | - | 1.89 (-0.05, 3.82) | - | 1.89 (-0.05, 3.82) | ||
Eating companion | Alone | - | Ref | - | Ref | |
With someone | - | 2.22 (0.76, 3.67)** | - | 2.22 (0.76, 3.67)** | ||
Screen-based activity while eating | No | - | Ref | - | Ref | |
Yes (watching TV, computer, or mobile phone) | - | -0.49 (-2.11, 1.12) | - | -0.49 (-2.11, 1.12) | ||
Individual-level variables | ||||||
Age (years) | - | - | 0.19 (0.11, 0.28)*** | 0.19 (0.11, 0.28)*** | ||
BMI (kg/m2) | - | - | -0.12 (-0.39, 0.14) | -0.12 (-0.38, 0.14) | ||
Energy intake (kcal/d) | 0.004 (0.002, 0.006)*** | 0.004 (0.002, 0.006)*** | ||||
Education level | Junior high school or high school | - | - | Ref | Ref | |
College or technical school | - | - | -1.00 (-3.65, 1.64) | -1.00 (-3.64, 1.65) | ||
University or higher | - | - | 0.39 (-1.73, 2.51) | 0.40 (-1.72, 2.52) | ||
Smoking status | Never or former smoker | - | - | Ref | Ref | |
Current smoker | - | - | -4.13 (-6.24, -2.02)*** | -4.13 (-6.23, -2.02)*** | ||
Variance components (random effects) | ||||||
Level-2 Intercept | 26.68*** | 28.05*** | 12.90*** | 14.30*** | ||
Residual | 117.41*** | 101.22*** | 117.45*** | 101.25*** | ||
Model Summary | ||||||
AIC | 9996.1 | 9832.4 | 9956.4 | 9792.8 | ||
ICC | 0.19 | 0.22 | 0.10 | 0.12 |
Model 0 (null model) | Model 1 (eating occasion-level variables) | Model 2 (individual-level variables) | Model 3 (eating occasion- and individual-level variables) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fixed effect | ||||||
Intercept | 44.33 (43.12, 45.55)*** | 44.33 (43.12, 45.55)*** | 44.33 (43.21, 45.46)*** | 44.33 (43.21, 45.46)*** | ||
Eating occasion-level variables | ||||||
Meal type | Breakfast | - | Ref | - | Ref | |
Lunch | - | -1.36 (-3.00, 0.27) | - | -1.36 (-3.00, 0.27) | ||
Dinner | - | 5.21 (3.72, 6.70)*** | - | 5.21 (3.72, 6.70)*** | ||
Day type | Working or school day | - | Ref | - | Ref | |
Non-working day or non-school day | - | -1.18 (-3.26, 0.89) | - | -1.18 (-3.26, 0.89) | ||
Eating location | At home | - | Ref | - | Ref | |
Away from home | - | 2.14 (0.04, 4.24)* | - | 2.14 (0.04, 4.24)* | ||
Eating companion | Alone | - | Ref | - | Ref | |
With someone | - | -0.57 (-2.08, 0.95) | - | -0.57 (-2.08, 0.95) | ||
Screen-based activity while eating | No | - | Ref | - | Ref | |
Yes (watching TV, computer, or mobile phone) | - | -0.34 (-2.06, 1.39) | - | -0.34 (-2.06, 1.39) | ||
Individual-level variables | ||||||
Age (years) | - | - | 0.11 (0, 0.22) | 0.11 (0, 0.22)* | ||
BMI (kg/m2) | - | - | 0.37 (0.02, 0.73)* | 0.37 (0.02, 0.73)* | ||
Energy intake (kcal/d) | 0.001 (-0.002, 0.005) | 0.001 (-0.002, 0.005) | ||||
Education level | Junior high school or high school | - | - | Ref | Ref | |
College or technical school | - | - | 0.81 (-2.03, 3.64) | 0.80 (-2.03, 3.64) | ||
University or higher | - | - | 2.92 (-0.35, 6.20) | 2.92 (-0.35, 6.19) | ||
Smoking status | Never or former smoker | - | - | Ref | Ref | |
Current smoker | - | - | -5.49 (-9.26, -1.72)** | -5.49 (-9.26, -1.71)** | ||
Variance components (random effects) | ||||||
Level-2 Intercept | 31.67*** | 32.28*** | 25.65*** | 26.26*** | ||
Residual | 119.13*** | 111.89*** | 119.14*** | 111.9*** | ||
Model Summary | ||||||
AIC | 10197.1 | 10115.4 | 10173.9 | 10098.2 | ||
ICC | 0.21 | 0.22 | 0.18 | 0.19 |