Rectal diazepam gel was the first US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved rescue therapy for seizure clusters; however, it has limitations for administration. |
Recently two intranasal therapies were FDA-approved for seizure clusters, one with midazolam and the other with diazepam, which have important differences. |
Midazolam nasal spray is FDA-approved for patients aged ≥ 12 years as a 5-mg dose regardless of age or weight; its formulation includes organic solvents for solubility and absorption. |
Diazepam nasal spray is approved for patients aged ≥ 6 years with dosing based on patient age and weight; its formulation includes vitamin E for solubility and Intravail for absorption. |
1 Introduction
2 Seizure Clusters
Term used | Definition |
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Acute repetitive seizures [35] | Multiple complex partial or generalized (tonic, clonic, tonic–clonic, atypical absence, or myoclonic) seizures occurring within a 24-h period in adults or a 12-h period in children, with a pattern distinguishable from the patient's usual seizure pattern and with onset readily recognizable by a caregiver, such as a parent |
Acute repetitive seizures [14] | A predictable component of a patient's seizure disorder historically distinct from the patient's other epileptic seizures in type, frequency, severity, or duration and with an onset easily recognized by family and physician |
Seizure clustering [97] | ≥ 3 seizures within a 24-h period |
Acute repetitive seizures [98] | ≥ 3 partial or generalized seizure episodes over a 24-h period |
Seizure clusters [99] | ≥ 3 or more complex partial seizures or generalized tonic–clonic seizures in a 4- or 24-h period |
Perimenstrual seizure exacerbation [100] | Threefold or greater level of perimenstrual (days −3 to +3) seizure exacerbation |
Seizure clusters [13] | ≥ 2 seizures in a midnight-to-midnight calendar day |
Seizure clusters [101] | ≥ 2 seizures occurring within 2 days in a habitual pattern that was also distinguishable from more sporadic usual seizures |
Seizure clusters [6] | ≥ 2 seizures in 24 h outside a patient’s typical seizure pattern |
Seizure clusters [43] | ≥ 2 seizures (focal or generalized) that lasted ≥ 10 min and had an observable, stereotyped, and recognizably different pattern from patients’ noncluster seizure activity, with another seizure occurring within 6 h of cluster onset |
Seizure clusters [102] | Individualized using a data-driven approach |
Seizure clusters [46] | Intermittent increases of seizure activity |
Repetitive seizures [103] | ≥ 3 seizures within 1 h |
2.1 Recognizing Seizure Clusters
2.2 Patient and Caregiver Perspective
3 Treating Seizure Clusters
3.1 Diazepam Rectal Gel
Dose and dosing | ||||||||
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Drug | How supplied | Composition | Dosing | Second dose | Max dose/ frequency | Time to onset [104] | Tmax [42] | Bioavailability [105] |
Diazepam rectal gel (Diastat) [16] | Diazepam gel supplied in a prefilled, unit-dose (Acudial) rectal delivery system Unit doses: 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0, 12.5, 15.0, 17.5, 20 mg in 0.1 mL | 5 mg/mL diazepam, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol (1.5%), ethyl alcohol (10%), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, propylene glycol, sodium benzoate, purified water | Patients ≥ 2 y of age Individualized by age and weight 0.2–0.5 mg/kg 2–5 y: 0.5 mg/kg 6–11 y: 0.3 mg/kg ≥ 12 y: 0.2 mg/kg | 4–12 h after initial dose | No more than 1 episode every 5 d Max 5 episodes per mo | 2–10 min | 1.2 ha | 90% |
Diazepam nasal spray (Valtoco) [17] | Single-dose nasal spray unit (Aptar Pharma Unidose System) 5.0, 7.5 and 10 mg dose in 0.1 mL | Diazepam, benzyl alcohol (10.5 mg per 0.1 mL), dehydrated alcohol, n-dodecyl beta-D-maltoside (Intravail, absorption enhancer), vitamin E | Patients ≥ 6 y of age Individualized by age and weight 0.3–0.5 mg/kg 6–11 y: 0.3 mg/kg ≥ 12 y: 0.2 mg/kg 5- and 10-mg doses given as 1 spray into 1 nostril 15- and 20-mg doses given as 2 spray devices, 1 spray each into each nostril | 4 h after initial dose | Max 2 doses per episode No more than 1 episode every 3 d Max 5 episodes per mo | 2–10 min | 1.5 hb | 97% |
Midazolam nasal spray (Nayzilam) [18] | Single-dose nasal spray unit (Aptar Pharma Unidose System) 5 mg dose in 0.1 mL | 5 mg midazolam in 0.1 mL, ethanol, PEG-6 methyl ether; polyethylene glycol 400 (absorption enhancer), propylene glycol, purified water | Patients ≥ 12 y of age 5 mg into 1 nostril | 10 min after initial dose (opposite nostril to initial dose) | Max 2 doses per episode ≤1 episode every 3 d Max 5 episodes per mo | 3–10 min | 17.3 min | ~ 44% |
4 Role of Nasal Spray Formulations
4.1 Midazolam Nasal Spray
4.2 Diazepam Nasal Spray
5 Use of Other Treatments for Seizure Clusters
5.1 Antiseizure Medications (ASMs) Used Off-Label for Seizure Clusters in the USA
5.2 Drugs Approved for Use in Europe
6 Seizure Action Plans
Study | Study type | Key selection criteria | Treatment and dose | Treated seizures, n | Outcomes efficacy/safety | |
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Diazepam rectal gel | ||||||
1 | Efficacy/safety study (N = 91a)[35] | Prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel group | Children (2–14 y) and adults (15–60 y) Max 100 kg weight With SC (≥ 4 seizures in last year, 1 episode within 3 mo) Stable ASM regimen No BZPs allowed Ineligible if habitual progression to status epilepticus | DRG 2.5–20 mg 6–11 y: 0.3 mg/kg ≥ 12 y: 0.2 mg/kg Placebo | 91 | Efficacy DZG reduced seizure frequency vs. placebo (~ 0.08 vs. ~ 0.85 seizures per h; P < 0.001) Percentage of seizure-free patients: 78% (DRG) vs. 19% (placebo) Significant for both adults (P < 0.001) and children (P < 0.02) Caregiver’s Global Assessment of Treatment Options superior for DRG vs. placebo (“better” ~ 37 vs. ~ 15, “same” ~ 6 vs. ~ 27; P < 0.001) Time to first seizure recurrence superior for DRG vs. placebo (chi-square test, 13.75; P < 0.001) Safety Most frequent TEAE: somnolence (DRG, 33%; placebo, 11%) No respiratory depression reported |
2 | Efficacy/safety study (N = 114a)[14] | Multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel group | ≥ 2 y with SC (≥ 2 seizures in last year, 1 episode within 6 mo of study entry) Stable ASM regimen Oral BZPs allowed at stable low doses Ineligible if habitual progression to status epilepticus | DRG 2.5–20 mg 2–5 y: 0.5 mg/kg 6– 11 y: 0.3 mg/kg ≥ 12 y: 0.2 mg/kg Placebo | 114 | Efficacy DRG reduced SC frequency vs. placebo (median 0 vs. 2 seizures; P < 0.029) Caregiver’s Global Assessment of Treatment Options superior for DRG vs. placebo (mean, 6.73 vs. 5.60; P < 0.018) Kaplan-Meier time to next seizure favored DRG (P < 0.007) Post-treatment, more DRG patients seizure-free (55% vs. 34%; P = 0.031) Safety Most frequent treatment-related TEAE: somnolence (DRG, 13%; placebo, 3%) No respiratory depression reported |
3 | Safety study (N = 149)[21] | Multicenter, open-label, repeat-dose safety | ≥ 2 y with seizure clusters or prolonged seizures Enrolled in prior placebo-controlled study or single-dose study | DRG 5–20 mg 2–5 y: 0.5 mg/kg 6– 11 y: 0.3 mg/kg ≥ 12 y: 0.2 mg/kg | 1578 | Effectiveness Open-label study with no control group 77% of clusters controlled at 12 h with a single dose [106] Safety Most frequent TEAE was somnolence (17% overall, 9% considered related to treatment) No serious TEAEs were considered treatment related No cardiorespiratory events reported 2 deaths considered unrelated to treatment |
Diazepam Nasal Spray | ||||||
1 | Bioavailability/safety study (N = 48b)[37] | Single-center, open-label, randomized, single-dose, 3-treatment, 3-period, 6-sequence crossover study | Healthy subjects aged 18–55 y Exclusions included contraindication to diazepam, comorbid diseases, concomitant medications, and unlikeliness to be adherent to study procedures | DNS and DRG based on approved DRG doses and weight categories Oral diazepam comparator 10-mg tablet | Not applicable | Bioavailability Less variability of bioavailability with DNS (percent of geometric coefficient of variation of AUC 42–66%) than DRG (87–172%) (variability was lowest with oral diazepam taken after fasting) Safety Most common TEAE was somnolence: DNS, 56.5%; DRG, 89.1%; oral diazepam, 82.6% |
2 | Pharmacokinetics/safety study (N = 57b)[50] | Multicenter, open-label, repeat-dose, pharmacokinetics study NCT02724423 | 6–65 y with clinical diagnosis of epilepsy Exclusions included pregnant/lactating, history of major depression, history of allergy to diazepam, and treatment with prescription medication in the past 14 d | DNS Individualized by age and weight | Not reported | Pharmacokinetics Rapid absorption with drug exposure similar between ictal/peri-ictal and interictal states Safety The most common TEAEs were dysgeusia (5.3%), seizure (3.5%), nasopharyngitis (3.5%), and nasal discomfort (3.5%) No reports of somnolence No evidence for respiratory depression No discontinuations due to a TEAE No serious TEAEs considered treatment related |
3 | Safety study (N = 175b)[46] | Multicenter, open-label, repeat-dose safety NCT02721069 | 6–65 y with epilepsy and SC that might need BZP treatment on average 6 times per y History of status epilepticus permitted Concomitant use of BZPs permitted | DNS Individualized by age and weight 0.2–0.3 mg/kg | 3853 (Mean duration of treatment 17.4 mo) | Effectiveness Open-label study with no control group 87.4% of clusters controlled at 24 h with a single dose (94.2% at 6 h) [106] Safety Most frequent nonseizure TEAEs: nasopharyngitis (12.3%) and upper respiratory tract infection (12.3%) No cardiorespiratory events reported 1 death due to epilepsy, considered unrelated to treatment |
Midazolam Nasal Spray | ||||||
1 | Efficacy/safety study (ARTEMIS-1) (N = 262a)[44] | Multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled NCT01390220 | ≥ 12 y with epilepsy and history of SC (≥ 2 seizures, last ≥ 10 min and have recognizably different pattern for non-SC seizures) Stable ASM regimen BZPs allowed as rescue therapy Ineligible if have status epilepticus | Test-dose stage (inpatient, open label) Two 5-mg MNS doses 10 min apart in test-dose period Comparative phase (outpatient, double-blind) 5 mg MNS Placebo Second dose of 5 mg MNS allowed if SC not controlled | Not reported | Efficacy MNS increased treatment success (seizure terminations within 10 min and no recurrence in 10 min–6 h) vs. placebo (53.7% vs. 34.4%; P < 0.0109) MNS reduced seizure recurrence vs. placebo (38.1% vs. 59.7%; P < 0.0043) Kaplan-Meier time to next seizure favored MNS (21% effect size at 24 h; P = 0.0124) Safety Most frequent MNS TEAEs during test-dose phase: nasal discomfort (16.1%), somnolence (9.9%) Most frequent MNS TEAE during comparative phase: somnolence (9.9%) Respiratory depression (0.7%) reported in test-dose phase |
2 | Efficacy/safety study (ARTEMIS-2) (N = 161)[43] | Open-label extension of ARTEMIS-1 NCT01529034 | Same as for ARTEMIS-1 Enrolled in prior placebo-controlled study | 5 mg MNS Second dose of 5 mg MNS allowed if SC not controlled | 1998 (Median treatment duration 16.8 mo) | Effectiveness Treatment success (seizure terminations within 10 min and no recurrence in 10 min–6 h) achieved for 55.5% of patients with first dose 61.5% of clusters controlled at 6 hours with a single dose [106] Safety Most common nonseizure TEAEs: nasal discomfort (12.4%), somnolence (9.3%) No treatment-related respiratory depression No TEAEs of abuse or dependence |
Templates | URL |
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Epilepsy Foundation | |
Epilepsy Foundation Minnesota | |
Seizure Action Plan Coalition | |
Epilepsy Foundation (Australia) | |
Acute Seizure Action Plan |