Introduction
Materials and methods
Study design and wheat germ oil
Subjects
Blood collection
Analytical methods
Statistical analysis
Results
Characterization of the wheat germ oils
Control (Fresh WGO) | – UVB WGO | + UVB WGO | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline | End | Baseline | End | Baseline | End | |
Vitamin D, µg/g | ||||||
Vitamin D2 | n.a. | < 0.3 | < 0.3 | 2.34 | 2.36 | |
Vitamin D3 | n.a. | < 0.03 | < 0.03 | 0.086 | 0.099 | |
Total Vitamin D | – | – | – | 2.43 | 2.46 | |
Fatty acids, % FAME | ||||||
C16:0 palmitic acid | n.a. | 15.2 | 15.1 | 15.2 | 15.1 | |
C18:1 n-9 oleic acid | n.a. | 16.5 | 16.3 | 16.6 | 16.2 | |
C18:2 n-6 linoleic acid | n.a. | 58.0 | 58.0 | 57.8 | 58.0 | |
C18:3 n-3 α-linolenic acid | n.a. | 6.24 | 6.27 | 6.26 | 6.23 | |
Oxidative markers | ||||||
Acid value (g KOH/kg) | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.2 | 10.6 | 11.2 | 11.0 |
Tocopherols (mg/100 g) | ||||||
α | 152 | 151 | 151 | 150 | 151 | 149 |
β | 62.2 | 60.0 | 61.8 | 59.3 | 61.2 | 58.6 |
γ | 19.8 | 20.2 | 20.2 | 20.6 | 20.6 | 20.4 |
δ | 1.47 | 1.40 | 1.38 | 1.37 | 1.42 | 1.33 |
Organoleptic testa | ||||||
Color | Yellow/Orange, Slightly dull | Yellow/Orange, Slightly dull | Yellow/Orange, Slightly dull | |||
Aroma | Characteristic | Characteristic | Characteristic | |||
Flavor | Weak | Moderate | Strong | |||
Viscosity | Liquid, Slightly viscous | Liquid, Slightly viscous | Liquid, Slightly viscous | |||
Rank sumb | 3 | 6 | 9 |
Baseline characteristics
Parameters | Control (no WGO) | – UVB WGO | + UVB WGO | P-valuea |
---|---|---|---|---|
n | 14 | 17 | 17 | - |
Age (years) | 34 ± 12 | 34 ± 13 | 30 ± 5 | 0.868a |
Sex (m/f) | 3/11 | 8/9 | 8/9 | - |
Weight (kg) | 66.9 ± 8.5 | 70.5 ± 9.0 | 71.4 ± 12.9 | 0.417b |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 23.4 ± 2.2 | 23.4 ± 2.6 | 22.7 ± 2.5 | 0.645b |
Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 119 ± 11 | 124 ± 15 | 124 ± 16 | 0.464b |
Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 79.5 ± 7.0 | 80.5 ± 8.7 | 79.1 ± 12.7 | 0.918b |
Pulse rate (beats per minute) | 72.4 ± 11.8 | 64.1 ± 8.7 | 63.9 ± 13.2 | 0.088b |
Nutrient intake assessed by food frequency protocols
Concentrations of vitamin D status markers
Control (no WGO) | – UVB WGO | + UVB WGO | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
n | 14 | 16 | 16 | |
25(OH)D2, nmol/L | ||||
Baseline | < LOQ | < LOQ | < LOQz | n.a |
3 weeks | < LOQb | < LOQb | 11.6 ± 3.0a,y | < 0.001A |
6 weeks | < LOQb | < LOQb | 14.6 ± 3.9a,x | < 0.001B |
Repeated measure analysis | n.a. | n.a. | < 0.001C | |
25(OH)D3, nmol/L | ||||
Baseline | 32.7 ± 10.2y | 28.3 ± 11.5z,y | 29.9 ± 9.5x | 0.530B |
3 weeks | 33.2 ± 8.7a,y | 30.6 ± 13.0a,y | 21.7 ± 5.6b,y | < 0.001B |
6 weeks | 42.3 ± 10.5a,x | 37.7 ± 15.6a,x | 20.5 ± 6.1b,y | < 0.001B |
Repeated measure analysis | < 0.001D | < 0.001C | < 0.001C | |
Total 25(OH)D, nmol/L | ||||
Baseline | 38.0 ± 10.2y | 33.6 ± 11.6y | 35.2 ± 9.5 | 0.535B |
3 weeks | 38.5 ± 8.7y | 35.9 ± 13.0y | 33.3 ± 5.7 | 0.177B |
6 weeks | 47.6 ± 10.5a,x | 43.0 ± 15.7ab,x | 35.1 ± 7.2b | 0.003B |
Repeated measure analysis | < 0.001D | < 0.001C | 0.829C | |
Vitamin D2, nmol/L | ||||
Baseline | < LOQ | < LOQ | < LOQy | n.a |
3 weeks | < LOQb | < LOQb | 1.46 ± 0.76a,x | < 0.001A |
6 weeks | < LOQb | < LOQb | 1.58 ± 1.05a,x | < 0.001A |
Repeated measure analysis | n.a | n.a | < 0.001D | |
Vitamin D3, nmol/L | ||||
Baseline | 1.75 ± 1.22 | 1.35 ± 0.19y | 1.85 ± 1.36y | 0.235A |
3 weeks | 3.05 ± 2.60 | 2.29 ± 2.69y | 2.12 ± 0.87y | 0.220A |
6 weeks | 2.24 ± 1.05b | 5.29 ± 5.51ab,x | 5.00 ± 2.44a,x | 0.002A |
Repeated measure analysis | 0.164C | < 0.001C | < 0.001D | |
Total vitamin D, nmol/L | ||||
Baseline | 2.00 ± 1.22 | 1.60 ± 0.19y | 2.10 ± 1.36z | 0.235A |
3 weeks | 3.30 ± 2.60ab | 2.54 ± 2.69a,y | 3.57 ± 1.23b,y | < 0.001A |
6 weeks | 2.49 ± 1.05b | 5.54 ± 5.51ab,x | 6.58 ± 2.65a,x | < 0.001A |
Repeated measure analysis | 0.164C | < 0.001C | < 0.001C | |
Ratio 25(OH)D2 to vitamin D2 | ||||
Baseline | n.a | n.a | n.a.y | – |
3 weeks | n.a.b | n.a.b | 9.7 ± 4.6a,x | < 0.001A |
6 weeks | n.a.b | n.a.b | 12.5 ± 6.9a,x | < 0.001A |
Repeated measure analysis | – | – | < 0.001C | |
Ratio 25(OH)D3 to vitamin D3 | ||||
Baseline | 22.4 ± 8.9 | 20.7 ± 7.8x | 19.6 ± 8.6x | 0.708B |
3 weeks | 18.1 ± 10.6ab | 19.0 ± 9.1a,x | 11.3 ± 3.7b,x | 0.006B |
6 weeks | 21.0 ± 6.4a | 12.5 ± 8.2b,y | 4.6 ± 1.5c,y | < 0.001B |
Repeated measure analysis | 0.420D | 0.005D | < 0.001C | |
Ratio total 25(OH)D to total vitamin D | ||||
Baseline | 22.0 ± 7.9 | 20.8 ± 6.5x | 19.7 ± 7.6x | 0.718B |
3 weeks | 17.9 ± 9.7a | 19.1 ± 8.1a,xy | 10.2 ± 3.4b,x | < 0.001B |
6 weeks | 20.8 ± 5.6a | 13.0 ± 7.9b,y | 6.0 ± 2.0c,y | < 0.001B |
Repeated measure analysis | 0.374D | 0.004D | < 0.001C | |
Parathyroid hormone, pmol/L | ||||
Baseline | 4.06 ± 4.22y | 5.87 ± 6.34y | 4.26 ± 2.71 | 0.402A |
3 weeks | 5.29 ± 6.72x | 7.67 ± 10.6x | 4.33 ± 2.06 | 0.159A |
6 weeks | 4.71 ± 5.17xy | 5.64 ± 5.99y | 5.61 ± 6.88 | 0.811A |
Repeated measure analysis | 0.046C | 0.009C | 0.144C |
Control | – UVB WGO | + UVB WGO | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
n | 14 | 16 | 16 | |
Δ 25(OH)D2 to baseline, nmol/L | n.a | n.a | + 9.27 ± 3.9 | < 0.001 |
Δ 25(OH)D3 to baseline, nmol/L | + 9.55 ± 6.84a | + 9.43 ± 6.09a | − 9.40 ± 8.48b | < 0.001 |
Δ Total 25(OH)D to baseline, nmol/L | + 9.55 ± 6.84a | + 9.44 ± 6.10a | − 0.13 ± 11.2b | 0.015 |
Δ Vitamin D2 to baseline, nmol/L | n.a. | n.a. | + 1.33 ± 1.05 | < 0.001 |
Δ Vitamin D3 to baseline, nmol/L | + 0.49 ± 1.15a | + 3.93 ± 5.43b | + 3.15 ± 2.77b | 0.006 |
Δ Total vitamin D to baseline, nmol/L | + 0.49 ± 1.15a | + 3.93 ± 5.43b | + 4.48 ± 3.06b | 0.001 |
Concentrations of plasma lipids
Control (no oil) | – UVB-WGO | + UVB-WGO | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
n | 14 | 16 | 16 | |
Σ SFA, % FAME | ||||
Baseline | 29.9 ± 2.1ab | 28.6 ± 2.0b | 30.7 ± 1.9a | 0.020A |
6 weeks | 28.4 ± 2.2 | 28.9 ± 2.3 | 28.8 ± 3.0 | 0.675B |
Σ MUFA, % FAME | ||||
Baseline | 25.4 ± 2.9 | 26.2 ± 2.7 | 24.9 ± 2.3 | 0.385A |
6 weeks | 25.6 ± 3.7 | 25.0 ± 2.2 | 24.5 ± 2.3 | 0.630A |
Σ PUFA, % FAME | ||||
Baseline | 41.6 ± 4.2 | 41.9 ± 3.2 | 41.1 ± 3.3 | 0.811A |
6 weeks | 42.8 ± 5.3 | 43.3 ± 2.6 | 43.9 ± 3.7 | 0.801A |
Linoleic acid, % FAME | ||||
Baseline | 29.4 ± 3.7 | 30.5 ± 3.1 | 30.2 ± 3.7 | 0.664A |
6 weeks | 29.0 ± 4.2 | 32.0 ± 2.7 | 31.9 ± 3.6 | 0.076A |
Triacylglycerols, mmol/L | ||||
Baseline | 0.98 ± 0.42 | 1.02 ± 0.44 | 0.93 ± 0.30 | 0.974B |
6 weeks | 1.09 ± 0.71 | 1.00 ± 0.46 | 0.95 ± 0.31 | 0.962B |
Total cholesterol, mmol/L | ||||
Baseline | 4.95 ± 1.08 | 4.97 ± 1.02 | 4.59 ± 0.72 | 0.630B |
6 weeks | 4.99 ± 1.12 | 4.65 ± 1.10 | 4.50 ± 0.65 | 0.732B |
HDL-cholesterol, mmol/L | ||||
Baseline | 1.61 ± 0.38 | 1.51 ± 0.24 | 1.62 ± 0.34 | 0.543A |
6 weeks | 1.72 ± 0.42 | 1.47 ± 0.27 | 1.61 ± 0.31 | 0.134A |
LDL-cholesterol, mmol/L | ||||
Baseline | 2.78 ± 0.82 | 3.02 ± 0.94 | 2.61 ± 0.69 | 0.399A |
6 weeks | 2.74 ± 0.86 | 2.79 ± 0.94 | 2.51 ± 0.57 | 0.531A |
LDL-cholesterol-/HDL-cholesterol-ratio | ||||
Baseline | 1.83 ± 0.69 | 2.04 ± 0.70 | 1.71 ± 0.62 | 0.414B |
6 weeks | 1.69 ± 0.74 | 1.97 ± 0.83 | 1.65 ± 0.57 | 0.388B |
α-Tocopherol, µg/mL | ||||
Baseline | 11.0 ± 3.7 | 10.7 ± 2.3 | 9.54 ± 2.1 | 0.235A |
6 weeks | 10.7 ± 2.5 | 11.1 ± 3.2 | 10.3 ± 1.8 | 0.669A |