Background
- To respond to an acutely injured or unwell patient quickly
- To bring emergency medical expertise to an acutely injured or unwell patient
- To transport an acutely injured or unwell patient quickly and safely.
Methods
Search of literature
Selection of studies
Data extraction and quality assessment
- Author, date and country
- Study design type
- Clinical crew structure
- Crewing model and staff grade/qualifications
- Patient group served
- Clinical interventions provided
- Outcomes
- Key Results
- Study strengths
- Study weaknesses.
Data synthesis
Results
Variation in HEMS clinical crew qualifications
Country/HEMS name | Staffing Model | HEMS-Specific Qualifications/Experience |
---|---|---|
Germany (Eich et al., 2009) | Ambulance–based emergency physician | • Extensive experience in a doctor-staffed ambulance (attended at least 300 incidents as ambulance-based emergency physician) • Hold an Advanced Life Saving Certificate • Completed a 4-month rotation in paediatric anaesthesia |
The Netherlands (Gerritse et al., 2010) | Anaesthesiologist or trauma surgeon staffed and specialised nurse | • Board certified trauma surgeon or anaesthesiologist with 6 months’ extra training in adult and paediatric emergency care, pain management and extrication technique • Nurse training not described |
Norway (Bjornsen et al., 2018) | Doctor-staffed by anaesthetic flight physicians | • Board certification in anaesthesiology • Experience in paediatric anaesthesiology • Completed a course in trauma care • Have knowledge and proficiency in CPR |
Great Western Air Ambulance Service, United Kingdom (Von Vopelius-Feldt, 2014) | Prehospital critical care consultant and critical care paramedic for “80% of shifts” | • Doctors undertake a training programme with “specific competencies and mentored practice, coupled with theoretical and simulation training” • Critical care paramedics “completed a university-based theory and practical training course with mentoring and supervised experience, followed by the successful completion of a comprehensive qualifying assessment.” |
Warwickshire and Northamptonshire Air Ambulance, United Kingdom (Fullerton, 2009) | 2 crew mixes: doctor and paramedic OR paramedic-paramedic. Dependant on staff availability | • Paramedic crew undergo 40 h’ additional clinical training • Doctors comply with eligibility requirements, including at least registrar level training and extensive training & exposure to acutely ill patients |
Bristol Great Western Air Ambulance and Wiltshire Air Ambulance, United Kingdom (Von Vopelius-Feldt, 2014) | 2 crew mixes: doctor and paramedic OR paramedic-paramedic. Dependant on staff availability | • Senior registrar or consultant in emergency medicine or anaesthesia • Critical care paramedic with over 5 years’ experience and postgraduate certificate in pre-hospital critical care |
Midlands Air Ambulance, United Kingdom (McQueen, 2015) | • Doctor-staffed for high severity trauma • Paramedic-staffed for support of ambulance crews when doctor unavailable or call would not benefit from doctor intervention | • Paramedics “have received additional training and operate as critical care paramedics.” • Doctor is senior trainee in emergency medicine, critical care or anaesthesia and has undergone specialist training to deliver enhanced prehospital care, RSI |
Suwon, South Korea (Jung, 2016) | • Multi-disciplinary staff for severe trauma (5 trauma surgeons, 1 emergency physician, a nurse practitioner and emergency technician • Emergency technician staffed for minor injuries in inaccessible locations | • Emergency technicians give basic life support procedures with phone support from the hospital medical team |
Japan (Abe, 2014) | • Doctor and nurse staffed | • No specific details provided |
Air Ambulance Victoria, Australia (Andrew, 2015) | • Intensive Care Flight Paramedic and air crewman | • Existing Intensive Care Paramedics complete an additional 9-months’ postgraduate training in aeromedical rescue. Also acquire skills including paediatric RSI, mechanical ventilation, insertion of arterial lines and invasive monitoring, administration of a wider range of medications • Air crewmen have 120 h training to fulfil the role of Emergency Medical Technician |
Greater Sydney Area HEMS, Australia (Burns, 2017) | • Doctor and paramedic staffed | • Doctors are board-certified senior registrars from Emergency Medicine or Anaesthesia; minimum of 5 years’ postgraduate experience • Paramedics are critical care specialists with a minimum of 10 years’ experience and additional training in pre-hospital and retrieval medicine. |
East Denmark (Afzali, 2013) | • Doctor and paramedic staffed | • Consultant anaesthesiologist experienced in intensive care pre-hospital • Paramedic with special training in navigation and radio communication techniques. |
Central Denmark (Rognås, 2013) | • Doctor and EMT staffed | • Anaesthesiologists with at least 4.5 years’ experience in anaesthesia. All work in and outside operating theatre as part of their daily work. |
Finland (Heinanen, 2018) | • Doctor staffed | • Mainly anaesthesiologists specialised in emergency care |
France (Desmettre, 2012) | • Team from hospital led by emergency physician | • No details provided |
Dalarna, Sweden (Kornhall, 2018) | • Doctor and HEMS crewmember | • Doctor has board certification in anaesthesiology • HEMS crewmember is registered pre-hospital nurse |
Pittsburgh, United States (Sperry, 2018) | • Paramedic and flight nurse staffed | • Not described |
Clinical competencies added by different clinical crew models
Country and References | Competencies | |
---|---|---|
UK (Fullerton et al., 2009, Shapey et al., 2012, McQueen et al., 2013, McQueen et al., 2015a, von Vopelius-Feldt and Benger, 2014, Smith et al., 2019) | • ACLS • Amputation (no instance of practice recorded) • Chest drain • Cricothyroidotomy • Epi admin • ETI in cardiac arrest • External jugular access • External pacing • Fascia iliaca block • IO access • IV Etomidate • IV Ketamine administration • IV Propofol • IV Suxamethonium | • Management of paralysed patient • Mag sulphate in cardiac arrest • Needle chest decompression • Peri-mortem Caesarean section • Procedural sedation • Fluid resuscitation • Rocuronium intravenous • RSI • Surgical airway • Thoracostomy • Thoracotomy • Torsades de pointes arrythmia • Venous cut-down • Wave form capnography • Large joint reduction |
Victoria, Australia (Heschl et al., 2018b, Andrew et al., 2015, Heschl et al., 2018, Meadley et al., 2016) | • Advanced analgesia • Blood-gas analysis • Blood transfusion • Comprehensive analgesia options including opiods and ketamine • Cricothyroidotomy | • Paediatric RSI with suspected TBI • RSI – adult and paediatric • Thoracostomy • Transfusion of Red Cell Concentrates • Vasoactive medication admin • IO access |
United States(Sperry et al., 2018, Kashyap et al., 2016, Polites et al., 2017) | • Airway management • ATLS • IV fentanyl and morphine administration • IV fluid administration | • Inter-hospital transfer of unstable medical patients Plasma transfusion • Spinal immobilisation • Ventilation • Transportation of severe trauma patients |
Germany (Eich et al., 2009) | • Analgesia/Sedation • Catecholamine administration • Chest tube and drain– paediatric and adult • CPR | • Defibrillation– paediatric and adult • IO access– paediatric and adult • Intubation – paediatric and adult • Volume administration |
Denmark (Rognås et al., 2013) | • Drug-assisted airway management (non RSI) • RSI intubation | • Nasopharyngeal airway • Surgical airway |
New South Wales(Burns et al., 2017, Garner et al., 2016) | • Analgesia/procedural sedation • Direct screening of emergency calls to identify appropriate (paediatric) response • Regional anaesthesia/nerve block • RSI and intubation – adult and paediatric • Surgical airway | Adult EZ-intraosseous access • Blood transfusion • Orthopaedic manipulation of joint/limb • Use of ultrasound (diagnostic/procedural) • Hypertonic saline administration • Thoracostomy/chest drain |
Norway(Bjornsen et al., 2018, Johnsen et al., 2017) | • ACLS • Anti-arrythmic therapy • Arterial line insertion • BMV adult/paediatric • Chest tube placement and drainage • Central venous catheter insertion • Dislocated joint reposition • ETI adult/paediatric • Fracture reposition | • Gastric tube insertion • Incubator transport • Inhalation therapy • Invasive and non-invasive ventilation • IV/IO access • Major incident management • Reduction and immobilisation of fractures • RSI • Umbilical cord catheterisation |
Country | Competencies | ||
---|---|---|---|
*The Netherlands (van Schuppen and Bierens, 2015, van Schuppen and Bierens, 2011, Ketelaars et al., 2018, Gerritse et al., 2010, Franschman et al., 2012) | • Analgesia/Sedation • Catecholamine administration • Chest tube • CPR • Drug-assisted and non-drug-assisted ETI • Echocardiography • Extrication techniques • Intubation • RSI intubation • Volume administration Diagnostic competencies • Cold diuresis • Diaphragm rupture • Hypocalcaemia • Hypomagnesemia • Kidney failure • Malignant hyperthermia • Tracheobronchial injury Therapeutic competencies • Amputation • Atracurium • Blood transfusion • Caesarean section • Calciumchlorid Cefuroxime • Chest tube • Cricothyrotomy (surgical • Dopamine • Ephedrine • Escharotomy • Etomidate | • Fascia iliaca compartment block • Flumazenil • Gum elastic bougie • Hydrocortisone • Hydroxycobalamine • HyperHaes® • Incision • Insulin • Intravenous access, central • Jet ventilation • Lidocaine • Laryngeal Mask Airway (LMA®) • Magnesium • Mannitol • Nasopharyngeal airway • Noradrenaline • Pericardiocentesis • Potassium • Procainamide Propofol • Push foreign object from trachea into bronchus • Rocuronium • Ropivacaine • Succinylcholine • Sufentanil • Supraglottic airway • Suturing • Thoracotomy • Tracheotomy • Trachlight • Thrombolysis • Venesection | Clinical judgment competencies • Advance endotracheal tube in case of bronchus rupture • Cardiopulmonary bypass in hypothermia • Dialysis in hyperkalemia • Induction with s-ketamine in asthma/COPD • Intravenous lidocaine administration before endotracheal intubation in possible intracranial hypertension • Intubation and ventilation in pneumonia • Magnesium in bronchial asthma/COPD • Push foreign object in further in bronchus • Resuscitation in hypothermia is beneficial • Supraglottic airway in “cannot intubate, cannot ventilate” situation • Thrombolysis in pulmonary embolus |