Nick Yee
ABSTRACT
The use of embodied agents, defined as visual human-like representations accompanying a computer interface, is becoming prevalent in applications ranging from educational software to advertisements. In the current work, we assimilate previous empirical studies which compare interfaces with visually embodied agents to interfaces without agents, both using an informal, descriptive technique based on experimental results (46 studies) as well as a formal statistical meta-analysis (25 studies). Results revealed significantly larger effect sizes when analyzing subjective responses (i.e., questionnaire ratings, interviews) than when analyzing behavioral responses such as task performance and memory. Furthermore, the effects of adding an agent to an interface are larger than the effects of animating an agent to behave more realistically. However, the overall effect sizes were quite small (e.g., across studies, adding a face to an interface only explains approximately 2.5% of the variance in results). We discuss the implications for both designers building interfaces as well as social scientists designing experiments to evaluate those interfaces.
Supplemental Material
Available for Download
other
Slides from the presentation
zip
p1-slides.zip (8.1 MB)
Supplemental material for 'A meta-analysis of the impact of the inclusion and realism of human-like faces on user experiences in interfaces'
- Bailenson, J., Blasovich, J., Beall, A., and Loomis, J., Equilibrium Theory Revisited: Mutual Gaze and Personal Space in Virtual Environments. Presence, 2001. 10(6): p. 583--598. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Bailenson, J., Beall, A., and Blasovich, J., Gaze and Task Performance in Shared Virtual Environments. The Journal of Visualization and Computer Animation, 2002. 13: p. 313--320.Google Scholar
- Bailenson, J., Blasovich, J., Beall, A., and Loomis, J., Interpersonal Distance in Immersive Virtual Environments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2003. 29: p. 1--15.Google Scholar
- Bailenson, J., Swinth, K., Hoyt, C., Persky, S., Dimov, A., and Blascovich, J., The independent and interactive effects of embodied agent appearance and behavior on self--report, cognitive, and behavioral markers of copresence in Immersive Virtual Environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 2005. 14(379--393). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Bailenson, J. and Yee, N., A Longitudinal Study of Task Performance, Head Movements, Subjective Report, Simulator Sickness, and Transformed Social Interaction in Collaborative Virtual Environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 2006. 15. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Bartneck, C., How Convincing is Mr. Data's Smile: Affective Expressions of Machines. User Modeling and User--Adapted Interaction, 2001. 11: p. 279--295. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Bente, G., Kramer, N., Petersen, A., and Ruiter, J., Computer Animated Movement and Person Perception: Methodological Advances in Nonverbal Behavior Research. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 2001. 25(3): p. 151--166.Google Scholar
- Beun, R-J., de Vos, E., and Witterman, C., Embodied conversational agents: Effects on memory performance and anthropomorphisation, in IVA 2003, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 2792, T. Rist, Editor. 2003. p. 315--319.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Blascovich, J., Loomis, J., Beall, A., Swinth, K., Hoyt, C., and Bailenson, J., Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology. Psychological Inquiry, 2002. 13: p. 103--124.Google Scholar
- Bonito, J., Burgoon, J., and Bengtsson, B. The Role of Expectations in Human--Computer Interaction. in GROUP '99: International Conference on Supporting Group Work. 1999. Phoenix, AZ. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Burgoon, J., Bengtsson, B., Bonito, J., Ramirez, A.J., and Dunbar, N. Designing Interfaces to Maximize the Quality of Collaborative Work. in Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. 1999. Maui, Hawaii. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Burgoon, J., Bonito, J., Bengtsson, B., Cederberg, C., Lundeberg, M., and Allspach, L., Interactivity in Human--Computer Interaction: A Study of Credibility, Understanding, and Influence. Computers in Human Behavior, 2000. 16: p. 553--574.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Cassell, J., Nudge Nudge Wink Wink: Elements of Face--to--Face Conversation for Embodied Conversational Agents, in Embodied Conversational Agents, J. Cassell, Editor. 2000, MIT Press: Cambridge, MA. p. 1--27. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Cassell, J., Towards a Model of Technology and Literacy Development: Story Listening Systems. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 2004. 25: p. 75--105.Google Scholar
- Chan, F.Y. and Khalid, H.M., Is Talking to an Automated Teller Machine Natural and Fun? Egronomics, 2003. 46: p. 1386--1407.Google Scholar
- Cowell, A.J., Increasing the Credibility of Anthropomorphic Computer Characters: The Effects of Manipulating Nonverbal Interaction Style and Demographic Emodiment. 2001, University of Central Florida: Orlando, Florida.Google Scholar
- Dehn, D. and van Mulken, S., The impact of animated interface agents: a review of empirical research. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 2000. 52: p. 1--22. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Fabri, M., Moore, D., and Hobbs, D. Expressive Agents: Non-Verbal Communication in Collaborative Virtual Environments. in The Autonomous Agents and Multi--Agent Systems. 2002. Bologna, Italy.Google Scholar
- Gerhard, M., Moore, D., and Hobbs, D., Close Encounters of the Virtual Kind: Agents Simulating Copresence. Applied Artifical Intelligence, 2005. 19: p. 393--412.Google Scholar
- Guadagno, R., Blascovich, J., Bailenson, J., and McCall, C., Virtual Humans and Persuasion: The Effects of Agency and Behavioral Realism. Media Psychology, in press.Google Scholar
- Gulz, A., Social Enrichment by Virtual Characters -- Differential Benefits. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 2005. 21: p. 405--418.Google Scholar
- Hess, T.J., Fuller, M.A., and Mathew, J., Involvement and Decision--Making Performance with a Decision Aid: The Influence of Social Multimedia, Gender, and Playfulness. Journal of Management Information Systems, 2006. 22(3): p. 15--54. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Hongpaisanwiwat, C. and Lewis, M. Attentional Effect of Animated Character. in Human--Computer Interaction -- INTERACT. 2003. Zurich, Switzerland: IOS Press.Google Scholar
- Hook, K., Persson, P., and Sjolinder, M., Evaluating Users' Experience of a Character--Enhanced Information Space. AI Communications, 2000. 13: p. 195--212. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Kiesler, S., Waters, K., and Sproull, L., A Prisoner's Dilemma Experiment on Cooperation with People and Human--Like Computers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1996. 70: p. 47--65.Google Scholar
- Koda, T. and Maes, P. Agents with Faces: The Effect of Personification of Agents. in Human--Computer Interaction. 1996. London, UK.Google Scholar
- Koda, T., User Reactions to Anthropmorphized Interfaces. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, 2003. E86--D: p. 1369--1377.Google Scholar
- Kramer, N. Social Communicative Effects of a Virtual Program Guide. in Intelligent Virtual Agents. 2005. Kos, Greece: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Lee, E. and Nass, C., Experimental Tests of Normative Group Influence and Representation Effects in Computer-Mediated Communication: When Interacting Via Computers Differs from Interacting with Computers. Human Computer Research, 2002. 28(3): p. 349--381.Google Scholar
- Marti, S. and Schmandt, C. Physical Embodiments for Mobile Communication Agents. in UIST. 2005. Seattle, Washington. Google ScholarDigital Library
- McBreen, H. and Jack, M., Evaluating humanoid synthetic agents in E-retail applications. IEEE SMC Transactions, 2001. 31: p. 394--405. Google ScholarDigital Library
- McBreen, H. and Jack, M., Evaluating Humanoid Synthetic Agents in E-Retail Applications. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics -- Part A: Stystems and Humans, 2001. 31(5): p. 394--405. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Moreno, R., Mayer, R., Spires, H., and Lester, J., The case for social agency in computer-based teaching: Do students learn more deeply when they interact with animated pedagogical agents?. Cognition and Instruction, 2001. 19: p. 177--213.Google Scholar
- Moreno, R., Mayer, R., Spires, H., and Lester, J., The Case for Social Agency in Computer-Based Teaching: Do Students Learn More Deeply When They Interact With Animated Pedogogical Agents? Cognition and Instruction, 2001. 19(2): p. 177--213.Google Scholar
- Mori, M., The Uncanny Valley. Energy, 1970. 7: p. 33--35.Google Scholar
- Mosteller, F. and Bush, R., Selected quantitative techniques, in Handbook of social psychology: Vol. 1. Theory and method, G. Lindzey, Editor. 1954, Addison-Wesley: Cambridge, MA. p. 289--334.Google Scholar
- Moundridou, M. and Virvou, M., Evaluating the Persona Effect of an Interface Agent in an Intelligent Tutoring System. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 2002. 18(3): p. 253--261.Google Scholar
- Murano, P. Effectiveness of Mapping Human-Oriented Information to Feedback From a Software Interface. in 24th International Conference Information Technology Interfaces ITI 2002. Cavtat, Croatia.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Nass, C., Moon, Y., and Carney, P., Are respondents polite to computers? Social desirability and direct responses to computers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1999. 29: p. 1093--1110.Google Scholar
- Nowak, K. and Rauh, C., The influence of the avatar on online perceptions of anthropomorphism, androgyny, credibility, homophily, and attraction. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 2005. 11.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Okonkwo, C. and Vassileva, J. Affective Pedagogical Agents and User Presuasion. in Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction. 2001. New Orleans, USA.Google Scholar
- Oulasvirta, A. and Salovaara, A., A cognitive meta-analysis of design approaches to interruptions in intelligent environments. Proceedings of CHI 2004, 2004: p. 1155--1158. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Prendinger, H., Ma, C., and Yingzi, J. Understanding the Effect of Life-Like Interface Agents Through Users' Eye Movements. in International Conference on Multimodal Interfaces. 2005. New York: ACM Press. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Prendinger, H., Mori, J., and Ishizuka, M., Using Human Physiology to Evaluate Subtle Expressivity of a Virtual Quizmaster in a Mathematical Game. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 2005. 62: p. 231--245. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Qvarfordt, P., Jonsson, A., and Dahlback, N. The Role of Spoken Feedback in Experiencing Multimodal Interfaces as Human-like. in ICMI '03. 2003. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Rickenberg, R. and Reeves, B. The Effects of Animated Characters on Anxiety, Task Performance, and Evaluations of User Interfaces. in CHI. 2000. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Rosenthal, R., Meta-analytic procedures for social research. 1984, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
- Rosenthal, R. and DiMatteo, M., Meta-Analysis: Recent Developments in Quantitative Methods in Literature Reviews. Annual Review of Psychology, 2001. 52: p. 59--82.Google Scholar
- Schaumburg, H., Computers as Tools or as Social Actors? -- The Users' Perspective on Anthropomorphic Agents. International Journal of Cooperative Information Systems, 2001. 10: p. 217--234.Google Scholar
- Slater, M., How colorful was your day? Why questionnaires cannot assess presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 2004. 13: p. 484--493. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Sproull, L., Subramani, R., Kiesler, S., Walker, J., and Waters, K., When the Interface Is a Face. Human-Computer Interaction, 1996. 11: p. 97--124. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Swartout, W., Gratch, J., Hill, R., Hovy, E., Marsella, S., Rickel, J., and Traum, D., Toward Virtual Humans, in AI. 2006. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Takeuchi, A. and Naito, T., Situated Facial Displays: Towards Social Interaction. Proceedings of CHI 1995, 1996: p. 450--455. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Tomlinson, B., Yau, M., and Baumer, E. Embodied Mobile Agents. in Fifth International Joint Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi Agent Systems. 2006. Hakodate, Japan. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Van Mulken, S., Andre, E., and Muller, J. The Persona Effect: How Substantial is It? in Human-Computer Interaction. 1998. Berlin, Germany. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Van Mulken, S., Andre, E., and Muller, J. An Empiricial Study on the Trustworthiness of Life-Like Interface Agents. in Human-Computer Interaction. 1999. Mahway, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Google ScholarDigital Library
- van Vugt, H., Konijn, E., Hoorn, J., Keur, I., and Eliëns, A., Realism is not all! User engagement with task-related interface characters. Interacting with Computers, in press. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Vertegaal, R. and Ding, Y. Explaining Effects of Eye Gaze on Mediated Group Conversations: Amount or Synchronization. in Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work. 2002. New Orleans: ACM Press. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Walker, J., Sproull, L., and Subramani, R., Using a Human Face in an Interface. Proceedings of CHI 1994, 1994: p. 85--91. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Walker, J., Sproull, L., and Subramani, R. Using a Human Face in an Interface. in CHI '94 "Celebrating Interdependence". 1994. Boston, Massachusetts USA. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Walther, J., Anderson, J., and Park, D., Inpersonal effects in computer-mediated interactions: A meta-analysis of social and antisocial communication. Communication Research, 1994. 21: p. 460--487.Google Scholar
- Walther, J., Slovacek, C., and Tidwell, L., Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words?allPhotographic Images in Long-Term and Short-Term Computer-Mediated Communication. Communication Research, 2001. 28: p. 105--134.Google Scholar
- Weisband, S. and Kiesler, S., Self-disclosure on computer forms: Meta--analysis and implications. Proceedings of CHI96, 1986. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Wexelblat, A., Don't Make that Face: A Report on Anthropomorphizing an Interface. Intelligent Environments, 1998.Google Scholar
- Xiao, J., Stasko, J., and Catrambone, R. Embodied Conversational Agents as UI Paradigm: A Framework for Evaluation. in AAMAS02 Workshop on 'Embodied Conversational Agents -- Let's Specifiy and Evaluate Them! 2002. Bologna, Italy.Google Scholar
- Zanbaka, C., Goolkasian, P., and Hodges, L., Can a virtual cat persuade you? The role of gender and realism in speaker persuasiveness. Proceedings of CHI 2006, 2006: p. 1153--1162. Google ScholarDigital Library
Index Terms
- A meta-analysis of the impact of the inclusion and realism of human-like faces on user experiences in interfaces
Recommendations
Evaluating the effects of behavioral realism in embodied agents
Designers of embodied agents constantly strive to create agents that appear more human-like, with the belief that increasing the human-likeness of agents will improve users' interactions with agents. While designers have focused on visual realism, less ...
Comparing Photorealistic and Animated Embodied Conversational Agents in Serious Games: An Empirical Study on User Experience
HCI International 2023 – Late Breaking PapersAbstractEmbodied conversational agents (ECAs) are paradigms of conversational user interfaces in the form of embodied characters. While ECAs offer various manipulable features, this paper focuses on a study conducted to explore two distinct levels of ...
A meta-analysis of the role of environmentbased voluntariness in information technology acceptance
The technology acceptance model (TAM) asserts that ease of use and usefulness are two primary determinants of behavioral intention and usage. A parallel research stream emphasizes voluntariness, a key social influence and contextual variable, as a ...
Comments