nach oben

Erschienen in:

Open Access 01.12.2021 | Research

Diabetic kidney disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a cross-sectional study

verfasst von: Randa I. Farah, Mohammed Q. Al-Sabbagh, Munther S. Momani, Asma Albtoosh, Majd Arabiat, Ahmad M. Abdulraheem, Husam Aljabiri, Mohammad Abufaraj

Erschienen in: BMC Nephrology | Ausgabe 1/2021

Abstract

Aim

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a major long-term complication of diabetes mellitus (DM). Given the paucity of data on DKD in Jordan, we aimed to evaluate the prevalence, characteristics and correlates of DKD in Jordanian patients with type 2 DM.

Methods

This cross-sectional study included 1398 adult patients with type 2 DM who sought medical advice in the endocrinology clinic between March and September 2019. Demographic, clinical and laboratory data were reviewed. DKD was defined as reduced eGFR, and/or albuminuria. Three regression models were constructed to identify factors associated with CKD stages, albuminuria and DKD.

Results

Overall, 701 (50.14%) patients had DKD, with a median age of 59.71 ± 11.36 years. Older age, high triglycerides, and low high-density lipoprotein were associated with DKD (multivariable odds ratio [OR]: 1.02, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01–1.03, p < 0.01; OR: 1.1, 95% CI: 1.01–1.2; and OR: 0.98, 95% CI: 0.97–0.99, p < 0.01 respectively). Metformin and renin-angiotensin system blockers were negatively associated with albuminuria and chronic kidney disease stages (p < 0.01).

Conclusion

Our study demonstrated that approximately one half of patients with type 2 DM had DKD. Further studies are necessary to understand this high prevalence and the underlying factors. Future research are needed to assess implementing targeted community-based intervention.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

DKD

Diabetic kidney disease

Diabetes mellitus

CKD

Chronic kidney disease

ESKD

End-stage kidney disease

HbA1c

Hemoglobin A1c

eGFR

The estimated glomerular filtration rate

ACR

Urinary albumin to creatinine ratio

PCR

The protein to creatinine ratio

RAAS

Renin-angiotensin system

BMI

Blockers, body mass index

Introduction

Worldwide, diabetes mellitus (DM) is a growing healthcare challenge and imposes a heavy burden on public health [1]. DM type 2 accounts for more than 90% of diabetes cases, and there is a rising number of people diagnosed with diabetes type 2 [1] with more rapid increase in low- and middle-income countries than in high-income countries [2].

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a major long-term complication of DM type 2 and is the leading cause of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) worldwide [3]. Although renal biopsy is the gold standard to diagnose diabetic nephropathy, the majority of diabetic patients do not undergo kidney biopsy, as they are presumed to have diabetic kidney disease based upon clinical history and laboratory evaluation and because of invasive nature of kidney biopsy [4]. Furthermore, an increasing number of DM type 2 patients present with DKD [5]. The incidence and rate of DKD are less clear in DM type 2 than in type 1, mainly due to the highly variable age of onset and difficulty in defining the exact time of onset and associated comorbidities [6].

There are marked racial differences in the epidemiology of DKD, which could be partially explained by the differences in health care services and environmental factors such as dietary intake and smoking [6]. Studying the prevalence and factors associated with DKD in patients with DM type 2 is crucial to estimate the disease’s burden and modifiable risk factors and to set research priorities. The urbanization, rapid change in the lifestyle and the dramatic increase in type 2 diabetes prevalence in Jordan necessitate evaluating the consequences of this disease, such as DKD [2].

Although the prevalence of DM type 2 in Jordan has been shown to be on the rise [2], the prevalence of DKD risk factors has not been well elucidated. Moreover, a focused study on DKD degree/severity among those with DM type 2 in Jordan has not been reported. Therefore, we aim to evaluate the prevalence, characteristics, and risk factors of DKD in patients with DM type 2 in Jordan. These findings will help define priorities and establish health policies on the national level and aid in patient counseling and treatment planning.

Materials and methods

Study population

This cross-sectional study aimed to assess the prevalence of DKD among patients aged >18 years who were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes and sought medical advice at the University of Jordan Hospital, Endocrinology clinic, between March and September 2019. We excluded patients with missing data (those that did not have at least two readings of serum creatinine or those that did not have at least two readings of urine albumin protein within 6 months of the assigned clinic visit), ESKD on dialysis, and other possible causes of CKD or proteinuria. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. This study was approved by the University of Jordan Institutional Review Board and followed the institutional and/or national research committee’s ethical standards and the principles of the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki.

Data collection and evaluations

Patients diagnosed with DM type 2 were identified according to patients’ medical records and verified during their clinic visits by an assigned research assistant. The following data were collected via face-to-face interviews and referral to medical charts by a trained research assistant: medical history including hypertension, myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease, heart failure, stroke, and the onset of diabetes; current diabetes status with complications such as retinopathy, peripheral neuropathy, and cardiovascular disease as reported during the interview; data on glycemic control, i.e., latest values of fasting blood glucose and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c); and smoking status. Current medication usage, such as antidiabetics, antihypertensives, lipid-lowering agents, and other medications, taken by the patients was also reviewed. A trained research assistant performed the following measurements in the office: blood pressure (mean of two consecutive measurements of systolic and diastolic blood pressure in the sitting position, 3–4 min apart) and we considered abnormal blood pressure reading >140 mmHg systolic and >90 mmHg diastolic, height, weight, and waist circumference. We also collected data on HbA1c, fasting blood sugar, fasting lipid profile (if available) as we considered abnormal results as following: High density lipoprotein (HDL <38 mg/dl in men and <50 mg/dl in women) and high triglyceride >160 mg/dl and Low density lipoprotein (LDL) >100 mg/dl, and serum albumin levels up to 3–6 months from the clinic visit using the latest blood test results when available. We assessed the kidney function using serum creatinine and urinary albumin excretion measurements on two occasions at least 3 months apart. We excluded patients who did not have 2 readings of any of the kidney function assessment within 6 months of the assigned clinic visit.

The estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was determined for each patient using a standardized serum creatinine level and the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration formula. Increased urinary albumin excretion was diagnosed as 1) microalbuminuria, if the urinary albumin to creatinine ratio (ACR) was ≥30 and ≤300 mg/g or the protein to creatinine ratio (PCR) was >0.150 and <0.500 g/g or 2) macroalbuminuria, if the ACR was ≥300 mg/g or the PCR was >0.500 g/g, and 3) albuminuria indicated patients with either micro- or macroalbuminuria [7, 8]. Urine samples that were positive for leucocytes and nitrites, which are indicative of significant urinary tract infection, and erythrocyte or Hb levels of ≥5 counts/μL, which is indicative of significant hematuria (false positives), were excluded.

DKD was defined as a reduced eGFR, <60 mL/min/1.73 m², and/or increased urinary albumin excretion, ≥30 mg/g creatinine that persisted for ≥3 months in the presence of longstanding diabetes and exclusion of other causes of CKD.

Statistical analysis

All analyses were performed using STATA (Stata Statistical Software: Release 16. College Station, TX, StataCorp LLC). Categorical variables are presented as percentages, while continuous variables are presented as the mean ± standard deviation.

Differences in sociodemographic characteristics, past medical history, comorbidities, and medications among patients with or without evidence of DKD were assessed using the chi-square test for categorical variables and Student’s t-test continuous variables. Three regression models were constructed: (i) to identify variables associated with CKD stages, a multistage ordinal logistic regression analysis was used, (ii) to assess variables associated with the degree of albuminuria, a multistage ordinal logistic regression analysis was used, and (iii) finally, a binary logistic regression was used to assess the variables associated with an increased risk of DKD. The confidence interval was set at 95%, and p-values of ≤0.05 were considered to indicate statistical significance.

Results

Among 1652 patients, 1398 patients met our inclusion criteria. The median age was 59.71 ± 11.36 years, there were 573 men (40.99%) and 825 women (59.01%), and the median duration of DM type 2 was 10.42 ± 7.99 years. Further, 970 (69.38%) patients in our study population were hypertensive with a mean systolic blood pressure of 135.53 ± 21.37 mmHg, and the mean diastolic blood pressure was 77.72 ± 13.61 mmHg. A body mass index (BMI) of >30 was identified in 66% of the population. The mean HbA1c level was 7.71% ± 1.60%. Retinopathy was documented in 477 patients (34.12%). These baseline characteristics of our study population are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1

Patient’s characteristics according to diabetic kidney disease status

Variable	Category	n (%)	DKD n (%)	Non-DKD n (%)	p-value
Variable	Category	1398 (100)	701 (50.14)	697 (49.86)
Age (Years)	<60	646 (46.21)	289 (41.23)	357 (51.22)	<0.01*
Age (Years)	≥60	752 (52.79)	412 (58.77)	340 (48.78)	<0.01*
Sex	Male	572 (41)	287 (41)	286 (41)	0.97
Sex	Female	825 (59)	414 (59)	411 (59)	0.97
Duration of DM	<5 years	393 (28.1)	162 (23.1)	231 (33.1)	<0.01*
	5–10 years	304 (21.8)	142 (20.3)	162 (23.23)
	>10 years	701 (50.1)	397 (56.6)	304 (43.6)
HbA1c (%)	<7.0	547 (39.1)	248 (35.4)	299 (42.9)	<0.01*
HbA1c (%)	≥7.0	851 (60.9)	453 (64.6)	398 (57.1)	<0.01*
Antidiabetic medications	Insulin	691 (49.5)	389 (55.6)	302 (43.4)	<0.01*
	Metformin	1074 (76.9)	475 (67.9)	500 (86)	<0.01*
	Other anti-diabetics	624 (44.7)	308 (44)	316 (45.4)	0.6
Using RAAS blockers		737 (52.8)	388 (55.4)	349 (50.1)	<0.05*
Waist circumference (cm)		109.3 ± 14.6*	110.2 ± 14.6*	108.4 ± 14.6*	0.02*
BMI	<25	121 (8.7)	58 (8.3)	63 (9)	0.87
	25–29	353 (25.3)	176 (25.2)	177 (25.5)
	>30	920 (66)	464 (66.5)	456 (65.5)
Smoking	Never smoker	986 (70.5)	488 (69.6)	498 (71.5)	0.18
	Current smoker	175 (12.5)	99 (14.1)	76 (11)
	Ex-smoker	237 (17)	114 (16.3)	123 (17.5)
Medical history	Hypertension	970 (69.4)	540 (77)	430 (61.7)	<0.01*
Medical history	Myocardial infarction	154 (11)	91 (13)	63 (9)	0.02*
	Congestive heart failure	46 (3.3)	26 (3.7)	20 (2.9)	0.38
	Coronary artery disease	155 (11.1)	92 (13.1)	63 (9)	0.02*
	Stroke	97 (6.9)	64 (9.1)	33 (4.7)	0.01*
	Neuropathy	596 (42.66)	330 (47.1)	266 (38.2)	0.01*
	Retinopathy	477 (34.1)	289 (41.2)	188 (27)	<0.01*

*Mean ± standard deviation

DKD diabetic kidney disease, DM diabetes mellitus, RAAS blockers, BMI body mass index

*Statistically significant

We found that 701 (50.14%) patients had DKD, 625 (44.7%) had albuminuria, and 268 (19.17%) had CKD with an eGFR of <60 mL/min/1.73 m².

DKD and a reduced eGFR were more prevalent among patients aged >60 years (p < 0.001) (Fig. 1). Such an association was not detected for microalbuminuria or albuminuria (p = 0.53). We also found that patients with DKD were more likely to have had used insulin, metformin, and renin-angiotensin system (RAAS) blockers (p < 0.01) than were those without DKD (p < 0.05) (Table 1).

On univariate analysis comparing patients with DKD to those without DKD, we found age >60 years, longer duration of diabetes, higher HbA1c of >7%, and hypertension were correlated to DKD (p < 0.0001). DKD was also associated retinopathy and neuropathy (p < 0.01).

Table 2 shows the multivariable analysis assessing factors associated with diabetic kidney disease. Age older than 60 year was associated with DKD (multivariable odds ratio [OR]: 1.02, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01–1.03, p < 0.01). Retinopathy, neuropathy, high triglyceride levels, and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels were also correlated with DKD (OR: 1.27, 95% CI: 1.01–1.6, p < 0.05; OR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.01–1.7, p < 0.05; OR: 1.1, 95% CI: 1.01–1.2, p < 0.01; and OR: 0.98, 95% CI: 0.97–0.99, p < 0.01; respectively). Metformin was negatively correlated with DKD (OR: 0.42, 95% CI: 0.31–0.55, p < 0.01). The use of insulin, beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, and diuretics was also significantly associated with DKD (OR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.1–1.7, p = 0.01; OR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.01–1.7, p = 0.02; OR: 1.4, 95% CI: 1.1–1.9, p < 0.01; and OR: 1.4, 95% CI: 1.1–1.8, p = 0.01; respectively) (Table 2).

Table 2

Multivariate binary logistic regression analyses for factors associated with diabetic kidney disease

Variable	Subgroups	OR	95% CI	p value
Sex	Female (Ref)
Sex	Male	0.9	0.7–1.12	0.6
Age (Years)		1.02	1.01–1.03	0.02*
Duration of DM (Years)		1.1	0.99–1.03	0.42
Medical history
Smoking		1.12	0.95–1.3	0.17
Hypertension		1.4	1.1–1.8	0.03*
CAD		0.9	0.6–1.3	0.44
Stroke		1.4	0.9–2.2	0.16
	Neuropathy	1.24	1.01–1.6	<0.05*
	Retinopathy	1.3	1.01–1.7	<0.05*
Medications	Insulin	1.38	1.1–1.7	0.01*
	Metformin	0.42	0.33–0.55	<0.01*
	ACEIs/ARBs	0.8	0.6–1.1	0.1
	Beta blockers	1.3	1.01–1.7	0.02*
	Diuretics	1.4	1.1–1.8	0.01*
	CCB	1.4	1.1–1.9	<0.01*
Triglyceride’s level (mg/dl)		1.1	1.01–1.2	<0.01*
HDL (mg/dl)		0.98	0.97–0.99	<0.01*

OR odds ratio, CI confidence interval, DM diabetes mellitus, CAD coronary artery disease, ACEI angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, ARB angiotensin receptor blocker, CCB calcium channel blocker, HDL high-density lipoprotein

*Statically significant

Advanced CKD was significantly associated with older age and diabetes duration (β coefficient: 0.06 and 0.03, p < 0.01 and <0.04, respectively). It was also strongly associated with the use of beta-blockers, diuretics, and calcium channel blockers (β coefficient: 0.35, 0.6, and 0.7, respectively; p < 0.01 for all three factors). We observed that RAAS blocker and metformin use were negatively associated with advanced CKD stage (β coefficient: 0.31 and −1.34, respectively; p < 0.01 for both factors) (Table 3).

Table 3

Multivariable ordinal logistic regression analyses evaluating the correlates of chronic kidney disease and its stage

Variable	Subgroups	Beta coefficient	95% CI	p value
Sex	Female (Ref)
Sex	Male	−0.2	−0.41–0.1	0.24
Age (Years) (continuous)		0.06	0.05–0.07	<0.01*
Duration of DM (Y) (continuous)		0.02	0.01–0.03	0.04*
Medical history	Smoking	−0.5	− 0.21–0.12	0.6
	Hypertension	0.23	−0.07–0.54	0.13
	CAD	0.12	−0.23–0.73	0.5
	Stroke	0.32	− 0.1–0.7	0.13
	Neuropathy	−0.1	−0.33–0.14	0.4
	Retinopathy	0.27	0.02–0.5	0.04*
Medications	Insulin	0.06	−0.2–0.31	0.65
	Metformin	−1.34	−1.6–-1.1	<0.01*
	ACEIs/ARBs	−0.31	− 0.56–-0.10	<0.01*
	Beta blockers	0.35	0.1–0.6	<0.01*
	Diuretics	0.6	0.33–0.85	<0.01*
	CCB	0.7	0.44–1	<0.01*
Triglyceride level (mg/dl)		0.01	0.0001–0.02	<0.01*

CI confidence interval, DM diabetes mellitus, CAD coronary artery disease, ACEI angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, ARB angiotensin receptor blocker, CCB calcium channel blocker

*Statically significant

Higher albuminuria levels were associated with calcium channel blocker and insulin use (β coefficient: 0.49 and p < 0.01). Hypertension and high triglyceride levels were associated with higher albuminuria levels (β coefficient: 0.33 and 0.02; p = 0.03 and <0.01, respectively). The use of Metformin and RAAS blocker was negatively associated with the presence of albuminuria (β coefficient: − 0.6 and −0.33, respectively; p < 0.01). The serum albumin level was associated with the degree of albuminuria (a higher serum albumin level was associated with a higher degree of albuminuria) (p < 0.01) (Table 4).

Table 4

Multivariable ordinal logistic regression analyses evaluating correlates of albuminuria

Variable	Subgroups	Beta coefficient	95% CI	p value
Sex	Female (Ref)
Sex	Male	0.05	−0.2–0.3	0.7
Age (Y)		0.01	−0.01–0.02	0.4
Duration of DM (Y)		0.01	−0.02–0.03	0.2
Medical history	Smoking	0.1	−0.06–0.25	0.24
	Hypertension	0.33	0.04–0.6	0.03*
	Stroke	0.1	−0.33–0.5	0.7
	Neuropathy	0.07	−0.16–0.3	0.53
	Retinopathy	0.14	−0.1–0.4	0.27
Medications	Insulin	0.36	0.11–0.62	<0.01*
	Metformin	−0.62	−0.88–-0.36	<0.01*
	ACEIs/ARBs	−0.33	−0.58–-0.09	0.01*
	Beta blockers	0.22	−0.03–0.47	0.08
	CCB	0.49	0.23–0.75	<0.01*
Triglyceride’s level (mg/dl)		0.02	0.01–0.03	<0.01*
Albumin (g/dl)		−0.7	−1.0–-0.4	<0.01*

CI confidence interval, DM diabetes mellitus, ACEI angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, ARB angiotensin receptor blocker, CCB calcium channel blocker

*Statically significant

According to the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes guidelines, we categorized kidney function into CKD-G and CKD-A stages based on the eGFR and ACR [9]. We found that 29.3% of the study population had a moderate risk for all major outcomes [9] (Fig. 2) and that 5.4% of our patients (76 patients) had non-albuminuria DKD.

Discussion

We found that approximately half of the diabetic patients visiting the endocrinology clinic had DKD. The prevalence of DKD was related to age, ranging from 46% in patients aged <60 to 52.8% in those aged >60 years. The following factors were significantly correlated with DKD: older age (>60 years), diabetic microvascular and macrovascular complications, and dyslipidemia. Metformin and RAAS blockers were associated with a lower degree of albuminuria and less advanced CKD.

Our results were in line with the reported prevalence of DKD in the Middle East (33–54.1%) [10, 11]. These studies relied on albuminuria to define DKD and this potentially underestimated the prevalence of DKD in some reports [12‐14]. The reported overall prevalence in our study was also in line with that reported in the US (54%) [15]. Nevertheless, the prevalence of DKD in younger patients in the US were found to be approximately 25%, as compared with 46% in our population [15]. The higher prevalence of DKD in younger patients is alarming and might result in a public health crisis in the coming years if active intervention is not performed.

The prevalence of DKD increases with age and is more evident by a low eGFR than by albuminuria. This can be explained by the physiological decline in renal function with age, which is associated with a gradual decline in eGFR [16]. This observation was confirmed in our study, wherein the impairment of eGFR with age was more marked than the occurrence of albuminuria.

Our results showed that patients who reported using metformin or RAAS blocker had a lower risk of developing DKD and proteinuria. Metformin is the preferred treatment option for DM type 2 and we found that metformin was negatively associated with DKD, albuminuria, and advanced CKD, consistent with most of the observational studies reporting that metformin is associated with reduced progression to ESKD in type 2 diabetes patients with DKD. However, the reason for these observations remains unknown [17]. In most animal model studies, metformin has shown prominent inhibitory effects on tubulointerstitial fibrosis in both diabetic and non-diabetic models [18]. Further, the long-term benefits of metformin regarding ESKD and cardiovascular disease in patients with moderate CKD have been demonstrated. To achieve the maximal renoprotective benefits of metformin, it may be necessary to use metformin in combination with SGLT2 (Sodium-Glucose co-transporter-2) inhibitors or incretin-based therapies at an early stage of DKD [19]. Unfortunately, metformin should be discontinued in cases of advanced CKD despite this favorable early effect.

Clinical trials have also demonstrated the beneficial effects of RAAS blockers in delaying the progression of DKD. Two large randomized long-term trials, the Angiotensin Antagonist Losartan study [20] and the Irbesartan Diabetic Nephropathy Trial [21] indicated that ARBs are effective in slowing the progression of diabetic nephropathy. These studies have shown that nephroprotection with ACE inhibitors and ARBs was greater than what might be expected due to a reduction in blood pressure. Our study found that RAAS blockers were negatively associated with a lower degree of albuminuria and advanced CKD stage. Many studies have shown that ACEIs and ARBs have beneficial renoprotective effects concerning the progression of DKD in hypertensive diabetic patients and can delay or prevent the development of diabetic nephropathy independently of the beneficial blood pressure-lowering effect in patients with DM type 2 and microalbuminuria [22, 23]. Subsequently, the National Kidney Foundation has recommended using that either ARBs or ACEIs in patients with diabetes regardless of the presence of hypertension.

Albuminuria is considered the first clinical symptom of DKD and is traditionally used as a screening test for DKD. However, mounting evidence suggests that the traditional concept of the natural history of DKD has changed, and a considerable proportion of adult diabetics are normoalbuminuric despite having a low eGFR [24]. The prevalence of normoalbuminuric DKD varies from 14.29 to 56.6% among diabetic patients of different ethnicities [25, 26]. These findings have led the American Diabetes Association to recommend screening DKD based on albuminuria and eGFR to avoid missing cases. In our population, only 5.4% of patients had an eGFR of <60 mL/min/1.73 m² without evidence of albuminuria.

The association between hypertension and albuminuria is well established but the mechanism is still controversial. It is thought to be an endothelial dysfunction, which is strongly associated with increased cardiovascular risk, and causes renal manifestation. Hypertension is reported in approximately 70–80% of DM type 2 at the time of diagnosis and known to exacerbate diabetic nephropathy [27]. Our study also showed that hypertension was associated with higher degree of albuminuria and DKD in patients with DM type 2.

The association between dyslipidemia and the development of DKD was investigated in several studies, and many epidemiological studies demonstrated an association between diabetic dyslipidemia and DKD [28]. Post-hoc analysis of large interventional studies of high-risk patients with diabetes [29, 30] revealed that high triglyceride and low HDL concentrations were associated with DKD. The ADVANCE study demonstrated that lower baseline HDL levels were a significant and independent predictor of DKD. In contrast, no association was found with the risk of diabetic retinopathy, suggesting that differences may exist in the pathophysiology of these microvascular complications [29]. The FELD study showed that the hypotriglyceridemic drug fenofibrate slowed the decline of renal function and reduced the degree of albuminuria in patients with DM type 2 [30]. Our study also showed that low HDL cholesterol levels and high triglyceride levels were associated with DKD.

There were several limitations to this study. First, the retrospective and the cross-sectional study design introduced recall bias and precluded temporal evaluation of risk factors and outcomes of interest. Therefore, a cause-effect relationship cannot be concluded. However, the data obtained by personal interviews and referring to medical charts minimized the recall bias and improved the data quality.

Second, our study was performed in a tertiary medical center and might not reflect the status-quo of diabetes in Jordan. Nevertheless, this tertiary center provides service to a wide range of patients with different socio-economic backgrounds all over Jordan. Additionally, given the Jordanian population’s unique composition, our findings can be generalized to the middle East. Third, this study had a small sample size for a common disease and did not examine the onset and the course of DKD in the population as the baseline readings of albuminuria and renal function at the time of diagnosis were not available.

Conclusion

We found that more than half of the patients with DM type 2 had DKD with approximately one-third were at moderate risk of major adverse events. DKD was correlated to older age, longer duration of diabetes, the presence of diabetic complications, and dyslipidemia. In addition, patients who were using metformin or RAAS blocker had a lower risk of DKD and proteinuria. Albuminuria adds valuable information regarding the prevalence, epidemiological characteristics, and risk factors of DKD. Prospective studies with long follow-up duration are needed to understand the natural course of DKD and future research should also focus on the effect of raising awareness about DKD in patients with DM type 2 to aid in implementing a more targeted community-based intervention.

Acknowledgements

Not Applicable.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Disclosure statement

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Author contribution

Randa Farah and Majd Arbiate contributed to the conception, design of the work and the acquisition of data. Mohammad Abufaraj, Mohammed Q. Al-Sabbagh and Randa Farah contributed to data analysis and interpretation. Randa Farah, Munther S. Momani, Asma Albtoosh, Majd Arabiat, Ahmad Tarifi and Husam Aljabiri drafted the manuscript. Mohammad Abufaraj, Randa Farah and Mohammed Q. Al-Sabbagh critically revised the manuscript. All authors gave final approval and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of work ensuring integrity and accuracy.

Declarations

Ethical statement

This retrospective study was approved by University of Jordan Hospital Institutional Review Board and all procedures performed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the principles of the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

NA/Not Applicable.

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes

Brown DW, Mokdad AH, Walke H, As’ad M, Al-Nsour M, Zindah M, Arqoob K, Belbeisi A. Projected burden of chronic, noncommunicable diseases in Jordan. Prev Chronic Dis. 2009;6(2):A78.PubMedPubMedCentral

Ritz E, Rychlík I, Locatelli F, Halimi S. End-stage renal failure in type 2 diabetes: a medical catastrophe of worldwide dimensions. Am J Kidney Dis. 1999;34(5):795–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-6386(99)70035-1.CrossRefPubMed

Qi C, Mao X, Zhang Z, Wu H. Classification and differential diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy. J Diabetes Res. 2017;2017:8637138. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8637138.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Wu AY, Kong NC, de Leon FA, Pan CY, Tai TY, Yeung VT, Yoo SJ, Rouillon A, Weir MR. An alarmingly high prevalence of diabetic nephropathy in Asian type 2 diabetic patients: the MicroAlbuminuria Prevalence (MAP) Study. Diabetologia. 2005;48:17–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-004-1599-9.CrossRefPubMed

Gheith O, Farouk N, Nampoory N, Halim MA, Al-Otaibi T. Diabetic kidney disease: world wide difference of prevalence and risk factors. J Nephropharmacol. 2015;5(1):49–56. Published 2015 Oct 9PubMedPubMedCentral

Tuttle KR, Bakris GL, Bilous RW, Chiang JL, et al. Diabetic kidney disease: a report from an ADA consensus conference. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(10):2864–83. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc14-1296.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Levin A, Stevens PE, Bilous RW. Kidney disease: improving global outcomes (KDIGO) CKD work group. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013;3:1–150.CrossRef

Stevens PE, Levin A, Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes Chronic Kidney Disease Guideline Development Work Group Members. Evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease: synopsis of the kidney disease: improving global outcomes 2012 clinical practice guideline. Ann Intern Med. 2013;158(11):825–30. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-158-11-201306040-00007.CrossRefPubMed

10.

Al-Homrany MA, Abdelmoneim I. Significance of proteinuria in type 2 diabetic patients treated at a primary health care center in Abha City, Saudi Arabia. West Afr J Med. 2004;23(3):211–4. https://doi.org/10.4314/wajm.v23i3.28123.CrossRefPubMed

11.

Alzaid AA, Sobki S, De Silva V. Prevalence of microalbuminuria in Saudi Arabians with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a clinic-based study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1994;26(2):115–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-8227(94)90148-1.CrossRefPubMed

12.

Herman WH, Aubert RE, Engelgau MM, Thompson TJ, Ali MA, Sous ES, et al. Diabetes mellitus in Egypt: glycaemic control and microvascular and neuropathic complications. Diabet Med. 1998;15(12):1045–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(1998120)15:12<1045::AID-DIA696>3.0.CO;2-L.CrossRefPubMed

13.

Taleb N, Salti H, Al-Mokaddam M, Merheb M, Salti I, Nasrallah M. Prevalence and determinants of albuminuria in a cohort of diabetic patients in Lebanon. Ann Saudi Med. 2008;28(6):420–5. https://doi.org/10.5144/0256-4947.2008.420.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

14.

Sarraf A, Al Dhubaib AS, Al Banai DJ, El Shazly SK, Medhat K. Prevalence of diabetic nephropathy and associated factors in type 2 diabetes mellitus in primary health care in Kuwait. Bull Alex Fac Med. 2005;41:583–91.

15.

Pavkov ME, Knowler WC, Bennett PH, Looker HC, Krakoff J, Nelson RG. Increasing incidence of proteinuria and declining incidence of end-stage renal disease in diabetic Pima Indians. Kidney Int. 2006;70(10):1840–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ki.5001882.CrossRefPubMed

16.

Hemmelgarn BR, Zhang J, Manns BJ, Tonelli M, Larsen E, Ghali WA, et al. Progression of kidney dysfunction in the community-dwelling elderly. Kidney Int. 2006;69(12):2155–61. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ki.5000270.CrossRefPubMed

17.

Lachin JM, Viberti G, Zinman B, Haffner SM, Aftring RP, Paul G, et al. Renal function in type 2 diabetes with rosiglitazone, metformin, and glyburide monotherapy. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011;6(5):1032–40. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.09291010.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

18.

Lee M, Katerelos M, Gleich K, Galic S, Kemp BE, Mount PF, et al. Phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase by AMPK reduces renal fibrosis and is essential for the anti-fibrotic effect of metformin. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2018;29(9):2326–36. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2018010050.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

19.

Kawanami D, Takashi Y, Tanabe M. Significance of metformin use in diabetic kidney disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(12):4239. Published 2020 Jun 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124239.CrossRefPubMedCentral

20.

Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D, Keane WF, Mitch WE, Parving HH, et al. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(12):861–9. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa011161.CrossRefPubMed

21.

Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, Berl T, Pohl MA, Lewis JB, et al. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(12):851–60. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa011303.CrossRefPubMed

22.

Parving HH, Andersen S, Jacobsen P, Christensen PK, Rossing K, Hovind P, et al. Angiotensin receptor blockers in diabetic nephropathy: renal and cardiovascular end points. Semin Nephrol. 2004;24(2):147–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semnephrol.2003.11.003.CrossRefPubMed

23.

Hsu FY, Lin FJ, Ou HT, Huang SH, Wang CC. Renoprotective effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers in diabetic patients with proteinuria. Kidney Blood Press Res. 2017;42(2):358–68. https://doi.org/10.1159/000477946.CrossRefPubMed

24.

Liyanage PLGC, Lekamwasam S, Weerarathna TP, Srikantha DWSY. Prevalence of normoalbuminuric renal insufficiency and associated clinical factors in adult onset diabetes. BMC Nephrol. 2018;19(1):200. Published 2018 Aug 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12882-018-1001-7.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

25.

Penno G, Solini A, Bonora E, Fondelli C, Orsi E, Zerbini G, et al. Clinical significance of nonalbuminuric renal impairment in type 2 diabetes. J Hypertens. 2011;29(9):1802–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283495cd6.CrossRefPubMed

26.

Kramer HJ, Nguyen QD, Curhan G, Hsu CY. Renal insufficiency in the absence of albuminuria and retinopathy among adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA. 2003;289(24):3273–7. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.289.24.3273.CrossRefPubMed

27.

Van Buren PN, Toto R. Hypertension in diabetic nephropathy: epidemiology, mechanisms, and management. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2011;18(1):28–41. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ackd.2010.10.003.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

28.

Russo GT, De Cosmo S, Viazzi F, Pacilli A, Ceriello A, Genovese S, et al. Plasma triglycerides and HDL-C levels predict the development of diabetic kidney disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes: the AMD annals initiative. Diabetes Care. 2016;39(12):2278–87. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc16-1246.CrossRefPubMed

29.

Morton J, Zoungas S, Li Q, Patel AA, Chalmers J, Woodward M, et al. Low HDL cholesterol and the risk of diabetic nephropathy and retinopathy: results of the ADVANCE study. Diabetes Care. 2012;35(11):2201–6. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc12-0306.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

30.

Davis TM, Ting R, Best JD, Donoghoe MW, Drury PL, Sullivan DR, et al. Effects of fenofibrate on renal function in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: the Fenofibrate Intervention and Event Lowering in Diabetes (FIELD) Study. Diabetologia. 2011;54(2):280–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-010-1951-1.CrossRefPubMed

Titel: Diabetic kidney disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a cross-sectional study
verfasst von: Randa I. Farah
Mohammed Q. Al-Sabbagh
Munther S. Momani
Asma Albtoosh
Majd Arabiat
Ahmad M. Abdulraheem
Husam Aljabiri
Mohammad Abufaraj
Publikationsdatum: 01.12.2021
Verlag: BioMed Central
Erschienen in: BMC Nephrology / Ausgabe 1/2021
Elektronische ISSN: 1471-2369
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12882-021-02429-4

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

^{Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag}

Kostenlos registrieren

Neu im Fachgebiet Innere Medizin

Echinokokkose medikamentös behandeln oder operieren?

06.05.2024 DCK 2024 Kongressbericht

Die Therapie von Echinokokkosen sollte immer in spezialisierten Zentren erfolgen. Eine symptomlose Echinokokkose kann – egal ob von Hunde- oder Fuchsbandwurm ausgelöst – konservativ erfolgen. Wenn eine Op. nötig ist, kann es sinnvoll sein, vorher Zysten zu leeren und zu desinfizieren.

Wo hapert es noch bei der Umsetzung der POMGAT-Leitlinie?

03.05.2024 DCK 2024 Kongressbericht

Seit November 2023 gibt es evidenzbasierte Empfehlungen zum perioperativen Management bei gastrointestinalen Tumoren (POMGAT) auf S3-Niveau. Vieles wird schon entsprechend der Empfehlungen durchgeführt. Wo es im Alltag noch hapert, zeigt eine Umfrage in einem Klinikverbund.

Das Risiko für Vorhofflimmern in der Bevölkerung steigt

02.05.2024 Vorhofflimmern Nachrichten

Das Risiko, im Lauf des Lebens an Vorhofflimmern zu erkranken, ist in den vergangenen 20 Jahren gestiegen: Laut dänischen Zahlen wird es drei von zehn Personen treffen. Das hat Folgen weit über die Schlaganfallgefährdung hinaus.

VHF-Ablation nützt wohl nur bei reduzierter Auswurfleistung

02.05.2024 Ablationstherapie Nachrichten

Ob die Katheterablation von Vorhofflimmern bei Patienten mit Herzinsuffizienz die Komplikationsraten senkt, scheint davon abzuhängen, ob die Auswurfleistung erhalten ist oder nicht. Das legen die Ergebnisse einer Metaanalyse nahe.

Update Innere Medizin

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.

Newsletter bestellen

Live-Webinar "Chronische Unterbauch- und Viszeralschmerzen in der Praxis managen"

Springer Medizin

Abstract

Aim

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Publisher’s Note

Introduction

Materials and methods

Study population

Data collection and evaluations

Statistical analysis

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

Acknowledgements

Data availability

Disclosure statement

Author contribution

Declarations

Ethical statement

Consent for publication

Publisher’s Note

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 1/2021

Outcomes of patients with end stage kidney disease on dialysis with COVID-19 in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; from PCR to antibody

Cannulation technique and complications in arteriovenous fistulas: a Swedish Renal Registry-based cohort study

Case report: Osteomalacia due to bisphosphonate treatment in a patient on hemodialysis

Hyperchloremia is associated with poor renal outcome after coronary artery bypass grafting

Tale of two nephropathies; co-occurring Alport syndrome and IgA nephropathy, a case report

Association between physical performance and incidence of end-stage renal disease in older adults: a national wide cohort study

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Neu im Fachgebiet Innere Medizin

Echinokokkose medikamentös behandeln oder operieren?

Wo hapert es noch bei der Umsetzung der POMGAT-Leitlinie?

Das Risiko für Vorhofflimmern in der Bevölkerung steigt

VHF-Ablation nützt wohl nur bei reduzierter Auswurfleistung

Update Innere Medizin