Prevalence and bacteriology of culture-positive urinary tract infection among pregnant women with suspected urinary tract infection at Mbarara regional referral hospital, South-Western Uganda

Urinary tract infection (UTI) is an inflammation caused by the presence and growth of microorganisms anywhere in the urinary tract. This could be the lower UTI (urethritis, cystitis) and/or upper UTI (pyelonephritis). The gold standard for the diagnosis of a urinary tract infection is the detection of the pathogen in urine in the presence of clinical symptoms particularly in patients with non-specific symptoms. The pathogen is detected and identified by urine culture which also allows quantitative estimation of bacteriuria. The minimum level of bacteriuria demonstrating an infection of the urinary tract has been defined to be a count of 10³ CFU/mL with significant pyuria [1, 2].

Urinary tract infections in pregnant women contribute about 25% of all infections and are among the most frequent clinical bacterial infections. Pregnancy changes in women that include anatomical, physiological and hormonal make them susceptible to develop UTI. The changes include dilatation of urethra, increased bladder volume and decreased bladder tone, decreased ureteral tone that leads to increased urinary stasis and vesico-ureteric reflux. These changes are partly due to increased levels of progesterone and estrogen but also due to pressure created by the growing uterus [3]. Up to 70% of women during pregnancy develop glycosuria, which encourages bacterial growth in the urine [4]. Untreated UTI in pregnancy is associated with complications like pyelonephritis, sepsis, severe sepsis and septic shock, hypertensive disease of pregnancy, anaemia, acute and chronic renal failure, intrauterine growth restriction, premature delivery, foetal mortality, and increased caesarean delivery [3]. These complications can be decreased by proper and prompt diagnosis and treatment of UTI in pregnancy [5].

Management of UTI at Mbarara regional referral hospital (MRRH) has been largely empirical without the use of a urine culture and susceptibility testing to guide therapy. This practice is a risk for development of antimicrobial resistance among uropathogens. Else-where, antimicrobial resistance is a major health problem in the treatment of UTI caused by Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumonia, the dominant uropathogens in pregnant women [3, 6‐9]. At Mulago National Referral Hospital, the largest Hospital in Uganda, it was found that 96% of pregnant women with UTI were treated empirically with 18% having extended spectrum ß-lactamases (ESBL) and 36% with multidrug resistant Escherichia coli strains [10]. Therefore, there was a need to identify which bacterial strains are associated with symptomatic UTI in pregnancy at MRRH and document their susceptibility to commonly utilized antimicrobials in order to guide treatment and prevent the emergency of multi- and extremely drug resistant bacterial strains, as well as reduce expenditure on the patient and hospital associated with the treatment of these resistant bacterial strains. This study sought to determine the prevalence of symptomatic UTI, identify the bacteria and susceptibility to selected antimicrobial agents in pregnant women at Mbarara regional referral hospital.

We enrolled a total of 400 pregnant women with symptomatic urinary tract infection. The mean age of the participants was 27.1 (±5.3) years,), living with a partner (94.25%), were in informal employment (76.25%) and had attained at least secondary level education (65.75%) (Tables 1 and 2).

The proportion of culture-positive UTI was 35% (140/400). Six different bacteria were isolated in this study with majority of the isolates 107 (76.43%) being Gram-negative Klebsiella pneumoniae was found to be the most frequent Gram-negative isolate (37.41%), followed by E. coli (28.78%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus mirabilis (each 5.04%) and Citrobacter freundii (~ 1%). Staphylococcus aureus was the only Gram-positive bacteria isolated (23.57%). Generally, organisms were sensitive to Gentamicin, Ceftriaxone, Imipenem, Cefotaxime, Ciprofloxacin, Nitrofurantoin and Cefuroxime (79.3, 82.9, 85.0, 81.4, 78.6, 66.4 and 65.7% respectively). Organisms were resistant to Ampicillin, Amoxicillin and Amoxicillin/Clavulanic acid (95.0, 95.7 and 72.9% respectively). ESBL-producing organisms were 29.0 and 33.3% of the Staphylococcus aureus were MRSA. All cultures demonstrated resistance to more than one drug (Tables 3, 4 and 5).

One factor was significantly associated with a culture-positive UTI which is a history of a previous diagnosis of UTI. All the other factors were not statistically significant.

The prevalence of UTI in this study was 35%. This was slightly higher than the global prevalence that ranges from 13 to 33%. It however was comparable to the prevalence reported in the study done in Bale Zone, South-east Ethiopia by Solomon Taye et al. in which the prevalence was reported to be 35.3%. This was much higher than the prevalence reported in other studies; A study in Ethiopia by Kedebe et al. in 2016 found a prevalence of 11.5%, in Eastern Tanzania by Matalingana in 2015 it was at 16.1%, at Pumwani Maternity Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya by Onyango et al. in 2018 it was 15.7% and at Mulago National Referral Hospital by Wanyama in 2003 the prevalence of symptomatic bacteriuria was at 15%. The prevalence of culture-proven UTI among pregnant women with UTI symptoms was 4% in another Mulago based study by Musa Sekikubo in 2017. All these studies had smaller sample sizes than our study. Also, the variation may have been due to differences in the environmental conditions, social habits in the community, the standard of personal hygiene and health care seeking habits.

Similar to other studies in pregnant women with symptomatic UTI, Bale Zone, Southeast Ethiopia by Solomon Taye et al. in 2018, Francois de Paul Siemefo Kamgang et al. in Durban, South Africa in 2016, a meta-analysis by Feizollah Mansouri et al., Onyango et al. in 2018 at Pumwani Maternity Hospital, in Kenya and Andabati G and Byamugisha J in 2010 at Mulago the dominant pathogenic agents were Gram-negative bacteria. However, unlike previous authors who had reported E. coli as the commonest pathogen, Klebsiella pneumoniae was the most dominant followed by E. coli in this study. Traditionally, E. coli has been the dominant uropathogen owing to its possession of toxins, adhesins, pili and fimbriae that allow adherence to uroepithelium. These protect the bacteria from urinary clearance and allow bacterial multiplication and uroepithelial tissue invasion. Recent studies however indicate that Klebsiella pneumoniae which has traditionally been a nosocomial organism is an emerging dominant community acquired uropathogen [3, 6‐9]. This has been attributed to its emerging and inherent virulent factors that include capsule, lipopolysaccharide, Siderophore, types 1 and 3 fimbriae, biofilm formation, and antibiotic resistance. Other Gram-negative organisms isolated in our study were Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Citrobacter freundii similar to other studies [13]. Staphylococcus aureus was the only Gram-positive isolate in our study. This is similar to the study done by Okonkwo in Ibadan, South-Western Nigeria in 2009, Adelaide Oguti et al. in Kenya, Deus Kabugo et al. at Mulago National hospital who reported Staphylococcus aureus as the most common gram-positive uropathogen in pregnant women, unlike in other studies which isolated coagulase negative staphylococcus and enterococcus as the most dominant Gram-positive uropathogens. This was worrying owing to its potential of causing severe infections to the mother and the new born [13‐15].

Generally, all organisms were highly resistant to Amoxicillin, Ampicillin, Amoxicillin/Clavulanic acid and Ceftazidime/Clavulanic acid at 95.7, 95.0,72.9 and 50.7% respectively yet these are the commonly prescribed antibiotics, in the study setting. Klebsiella pneumonia, the dominant isolate in our study was 98.1 and 96% resistant to Ampicillin and Amoxicillin respectively. E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were 100% resistant to both Ampicillin and Amoxicillin. This has been demonstrated in other studies in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda at Mulago National Referral Hospital though the level of resistance was much higher than reported in most of the mentioned studies [8, 10, 13, 16, 17]. The high resistance could be attributed to the over-the counter availability of these drugs particularly Ampicillin and Amoxicillin. All isolates were sensitive to Ceftriaxone, Cefotaxime, Gentamicin, Ciprofloxacin, Nitrofurantoin and Cefuroxime at 82.9, 81.4, and 79.3%, 78.6, 66.4 and 65.7% respectively. Klebsiella pneumoniae was particularly highly sensitive to Gentamicin, Ceftriaxone, Ciprofloxacin and Cefotaxime. E. coli and Proteus were particularly highly sensitive to Nitrofurantoin, Ciprofloxacin, Gentamicin, Cefotaxime and Ceftriaxone. Pseudomonas was sensitive only to Cefotaxime and Ceftriaxone and also showed a 43% resistance to Imipenem. The sensitivity patterns exhibited by the Gram-negative isolates in our study have been demonstrated in other studies in Ethiopia, Nigeria, Uganda, Kenya, Cameroon and South Africa [8‐10, 13, 16, 17]. The prevalence of MRSA was 33.3% in our study which was higher than that found by Onyango et al. at Puwani Hospital in Nairobi in 2018 (20%) [18]. The presence of ESBL producers among the Enterobacteriaceae in our study was 29.0% with Klebsiella at 25% and E. coli at 32.5% respectively. This was higher than that by Onyango et al. 2018 in Kenya (19%), Musa Sekikubo et al. 2017 at Mulago (18%) but was less than that found by Sabrina et al. 2010 in Tanzania (32.5%) [10, 18, 19]. A meta-analysis by Feizollah Mansouri et al. 2019 found the pooled prevalence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae of 25% with 45% in Africa, 33% in India, 5% in Europe and 3% in North America. Presence of multi-drug resistant (MDR) organisms (resistance to ≥2 drugs) was 100% which was the same as was found by Behailu Derese et al. 2016 which was much higher than that found by Sabrina et al. 2010 in Tanzania (77%), Sekikubo et al. 2017 at Mulago (36%), Taye et al. 2018 in Ethiopia (only E.coli was MDR) [10, 18, 19].

A history of a previous diagnosis of UTI was significantly associated with culture positive UTI. Previous diagnosis of UTI was also reported by Behailu Derese et al. 2016 in Eastern Ethiopia to be significantly associated with UTI in pregnancy. This might be due to the presence of resistance strains from those who had the previous history of UTI [20].

Our study recorded a higher prevalence of culture-positive UTI in pregnancy than most of the studies in East Africa and Ethiopia. The dominant isolates in our study were Klebsiella pneumoniae and E. coli. These two organisms were highly resistant to the commonly used antibiotics. Prevalence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae and MRSA was high in our study.

UTI in pregnancy was significantly associated with previous UTI. We encourage all clinicians to base diagnosis of UTI in pregnancy on urine culture. Empirical treatment of UTI should be avoided as sensitivity varies for each organism, for each drug and over time. Particular interest should be given to pregnant women with a history of UTI. We should also educate pregnant women to avoid over-the-counter antibiotics as this is likely to worsen antibiotic resistance. Also, we recommend screening for bacteriuria in all pregnant women.