In the current study, we had the theoretical assumption that motives affect activities in many areas of life. Thus, both intentions and actions impact the autonomic nervous system. We explored what were the motives that could affect the measurements based on HR, HRV, and acceleration signal (i.e., PA and SB).
The RMP motives such as Acceptance, Eating, Family, Physical Activity, Power, Tranquillity, and Vengeance were found to have a relationship with FB-measured outcomes. The adjusted R-squared compares the explanatory power of regression models that contain different numbers of predictors. However, in this study, the explanatory power related to HR and HRV showed lower explanatory power than accelerometer measurements did.
Stress, recovery, and sleep proportion
The explanatory power of RMP motives and background information on stress, recovery, and sleep proportion were between 11% and 14%. In this study, 2–4 explanatory variables, a combination that offered the highest explanatory power, were selected for each of the response variables due to the number of participants, based on the work by Green (
1991). Since there were altogether 16 motives and further background information, it seems obvious that a larger population should have been studied for the higher explanatory power (i.e., the number of explanatory variables could have been higher if there had been more participants). However, participation in the study was completely voluntary, and 66 teachers selected both RMP and FB measurements.
Another explanation for the low explanatory power is related to Reiss’s (
2004) theory, which conceptualized human behavior as a function of instincts, drives, needs, and tensions. However, there might be some other factors than motives that influence these aforementioned three aspects (stress, recovery, and sleep), such as physical inactivity, overweight, workload, and work-related stress (Föhr et al.
2016).
According to our results, stress decreased when the Physical Activity motive increased. We assume that people who have a higher Physical Activity motive would actually move more and with a higher power, and thus, they might experience less stress and have more rest. Similarly, when the Physical Activity motive increases, the recovery proportion also increases. Therefore, we think that those with a high training load would also need and take more time for recovery. These results are in line with studies explaining the positive influence of moving and sports. For example, Föhr et al. (
2017) concluded that high PA and device-assessed low stress (i.e., larger HRV) and good recovery positively affect subjective stress changes. Wahl et al. (
2020) found that exercise intensity tolerance directly affected perceived stress and recovery. In addition, the accumulation of stress responses was found more predictive of subsequent PA than current stress reactivity or recovery responses (Almeida et al.
2020).
Gender and teaching experience were forced to regression models of stress and recovery since the explanatory power was higher with these. Our finding related to women having greater stress proportion to men is in line with Klassen and Chiu (
2010). Further, we assume that increasing experience in a job may help reduce stress and find ways to recover, but that does not seem to be the case in this population. The teaching experience was around 11 years on average, and thus, our result contradicts Klassen and Chiu (
2010) who found that from early career to mid-career self-efficacy and, thus, possibilities for recovery, increased. This could be because of the participants’ average age of 46 years with possibly limited possibilities to recover on leisure time and more family-related responsibilities.
Related to sleep proportion, when the need for Acceptance increased, the amount of sleep decreased. Based on Reiss (
2008), individuals who have an increased demand for Acceptance do not want to be criticized or rejected. Therefore, they might have less self-confidence than those with a low need for Acceptance. They may easily blame themselves and worry that their performance may be evaluated as inferior sometimes leading to working longer and harder to please others (Reiss
2008,
2013b). Therefore, the influence of the need for Acceptance and the diminishing amount of sleep is understandable: their sleep may be influenced by worrying if they performed well enough and the sheer amount of work hours and effort driven by the high need for Acceptance by others.
Furthermore, in this population, when a person was in a superior position, they slept longer than others. This is somewhat surprising because one might assume that managers and leaders may be more stressed than others, and this can also be seen in their sleep length. One explanation may be found in the low need for Acceptance. This is only speculation, but people with a low need for Acceptance are often more likely to be asked to take a leadership role since they behave more confidently than others. However, only two individuals (3%) were in a superior position in this population, and thus, these results are not generalizable.
Sedentary behavior and light to vigorous physical activity
The explanatory power of RMP motives and background information on SB and light to vigorous PA was approximately 17% to 30%, the lowest for vigorous PA and the highest for SB. In the current study, the motivation theory by Reiss did not fully explain dynamic changes in health-related behaviors. Based on the paper by Stults-Kolehmainen et al. (
2020), affectively charged motivation states that change quickly may better explain PA behavior from one moment to the next than longer-lasting desires, values, or goals.
Related to SB, we found that SB increased when the need for Power increased. According to Reiss (1998,
2008), people with a high need for Power tend to work a lot and influence others in many places and situations. If the majority of the work takes place at a computer, that may increase the amount of sitting and other SB.
Also, when the Eating motive increased, SB decreased. There could be many explanations for this: During lunch breaks at school, many teachers have simultaneous supervisory roles, including moving around in the canteen to ensure that children eat, too. Also, people who eat regularly supported by this motive may have more energy to move. The latter is in line with Stuntz et al. (
2017), who found that healthy eating habits were associated with higher leisure-time PA mediated through psychological variables. The higher levels of PA decrease the amount of SB, at least if the intensity of PA stays light or moderate (i.e., in sub-maximal levels of intensity).
Further, with higher age, SB decreased. This may be related to the increased awareness of and interest in improving health and reducing stress. This assumption is in line with Loosveldt (
2015), who found that paying attention and being aware of the harmful effects of SB lead to small positive changes in everyday routine, such as increasing non-exercise physical activities.
In addition, being in a superior position decreased SB. We assume that SB and PA may not be in direct opposition, even if they are typically contrasting. Stults-Kolehmainen et al. (
2020) wrote that there may be restraining and propelling forces for both rest and movement acting simultaneously, and these might be modified or done flexibly based on needs and desires.
Related to light PA, we found that when the need for Physical Activity increased, the amount of light PA decreased. People with an increased need for Physical Activity are typically more interested in vigorous physical exercise that includes sweating and are more effective for growing muscles, staying fit, and being more physical (Reiss 1998,
2004,
2008).
In our research, the need for Tranquillity was linked to a higher amount of light PA. Light PA includes, for example, slow-tempo walking, gardening, and yoga. Therefore, people with a high need for Tranquillity may want to reduce their anxiety by adding light, relaxing, and low-risk exercise to their life to seek higher emotional calm. Also, according to Reiss (
2008) and Reiss et al. (
1986), people with a high need for Tranquillity desire to avoid experiencing anxiety or pain because they may be highly sensitive to pain. Therefore, they seek feelings of relaxation, whereas frustration may produce fear, anxiety, worry, and different symptoms of pain and uneasiness in their body. When they exercise, they also typically prefer to move in a way that does not hurt or produce any physical pain. That kind of moving is generally light and calm, as mentioned above. Also, Cremeans-Smith (
2018) found that fear of pain was significantly linked with thoughts anticipating pain predicting participants’ exercise frequency. In their findings, men with a fear of pain reported more days with PA.
When the teaching experience increased, the amount of light PA increased. We assume that the longer experience the teachers have, the more they reduce stress by adding light PA. It may also be that the more experienced the teachers are, the more they move around in the classroom to support different learners individually. This phenomenon may be related to the higher age of experienced teachers. It is also possible that the intensity of physical exercise typically decreases with age. In addition, taking care of Family members was related to a lower amount of light PA.
In the RMP, the need for Physical Activity varies from a low need to a high need. Most people, about 60%, tend to score with a “balanced” or moderate need for Physical Activity (Reiss and Havercamp
1998). In this study, when the Family motive was higher, the moderate PA decreased. This may be explained by the time taken to take care of and be with family, which is time away from moderate PA. Perhaps these people prioritize Family over moving, and they would need to have a high need for Physical Activity to keep moving (and then most likely vigorously).
The more teaching experience people had, the higher the amount of moderate PA. On the other hand, a stable workplace was connected with a lower amount of moderate PA. Moreover, women had a higher amount of moderate PA than men, which could be explained by women in general having a somewhat higher need for Acceptance and a lower need for Physical Activity than men (Aflleje et al.
2022).
People with a high need for Physical Activity in the RMP prefer to move for the sake of moving. They typically enjoy hard and tough exercising, using their muscles, sweating, and different kinds of vigorous sports. The stronger the motive, the more different kinds of sports and physical activities these people tend to have as part of their lives, often daily. They may describe themselves as energetic, sporty, and fit (Reiss
2008; Mayor and Risku
2015). Therefore, it was not surprising that, compared with the FB results, the higher the need for Physical Activity, the higher the amount of vigorous PA during the measurement period.
On the other hand, if the respondents had a high need for Acceptance, the amount of vigorous PA was lower. People with a high need for Acceptance often feel more insecure and have a stronger fear of failure than those with a lower need for Acceptance (Reiss
2008). Vigorous PA is associated with higher risk-taking, which may be easier for those with a lower need for approval from others or who think they will succeed in anything; common thinking for those with a low need for Acceptance. Further, as Ball et al. (
2014) discussed, motives for vigorous PA might be identified as related to competition, but also the enjoyment of exercise itself as the top motive.
Participants with a high need for Vengeance or winning also had more vigorous PA. A high need for Vengeance is associated with a need to win, battle, retaliate, not give up easily and be persistent (Reiss
2008). Top athletes benefit from the high need for Vengeance by tapping into the winning “spark” during decisive moments in competitions. It may also help them train more and harder than those with a lower need for Vengeance and winning. Often people who exercise a lot and hard are motivated by high Physical Activity and high Vengeance. Logically, this motive combination drives people to move. When doing sports, they are likely to enjoy competitive sports and measure their sports performance compared to their peers.
Strength and limitations
To our knowledge, no earlier studies report the relationship between RMP and FB measurements. This study has made an important addition to the literature by examining the effects of motives on device-measured stress, recovery, sleep, and SB and PA. Our findings support the earlier evidence for the importance of the role of motives in PA promotion, specifically in vigorous PA. As a new observation, we found that the higher Acceptance motive was related to the lower amount of vigorous PA. It was surprising because, based on everyday experience, people exercise vigorously to get acceptance from others. The study also provides direction for future studies on the effects of motives on stress and recovery.
However, as a limitation of the study, it is partly unclear how motives are linked to the autonomic nervous system, and thus, stress, recovery, and sleep. The explanatory power of our model showed that several factors are needed to explain these links. In this study, we used only measured data. In the future, it would give us further information on this phenomenon to use qualitative data as well. Also, further research on the RMP and the 16 basic desires would significantly deepen the understanding of human motivation in general.
Conclusions
We found that the 16 basic desires (motives) by Steven Reiss partly explained FB-measured stress, recovery, and sleep. The strongest links were found with sedentary behavior and physical activity. RMP motives such as Acceptance, Eating, Family, Physical Activity, Power, Tranquillity, and Vengeance were found to have a relationship with FB-measured outcomes. The Physical Activity motive appeared as the most significant one influencing stress, recovery, light PA, and vigorous PA. In conclusion, the basic desires explained sedentary and PA behavior better than the functioning of the autonomic nervous system. Finally, the 16 life motives can serve as a valuable theory for understanding better how to encourage people to have healthier habits.