Introduction
Humans require good sleep, in both quality and quantity, and sufficient pain control mechanisms. Sleep is essential for physical health, emotional well-being, brain functioning, daytime performance, and pain control [
1]. Abnormal pain modulation system can cause chronic pain, and chronic pain is associated with sleep problems [
2,
3]. Patients with chronic pain have poorer sleep than healthy controls in terms of sleep latency, sleep efficiency, and awakenings after sleep onset [
4]. Thus, reciprocal, bidirectional interactions exist between chronic pain and sleep disorders, deterioration in either of them can ultimately become comorbid conditions [
5]. In clinical settings, sleep problems have been found to impact 88% of patients with chronic pain [
6]. Contrarily, more than 40% of patients who have sleep-related problems report chronic pain [
7]. The prevalence of chronic pain ranges from 10 to 40% [
8], similar to that of sleep disorders, ranging from 10 to 36% [
9].
Temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) are quite common chronic orofacial pain conditions. TMDs are highly prevalent, affecting up to 25% of the population, with a peak incidence at 20–40 years of age, and 1.5–2 times more prevalent in female than in male [
10]. Pain is the most common symptom of TMDs [
11], which can affect areas such as the ears, eyes and/or throat, frequently causing neck pain and headache, and involve disturbances in mandibular movement, and functional impairment. Sleep problems are common in patients with TMD, with approximately 90% reporting poor sleep quality [
12]. Deterioration of sleep quality and impairment of sleep structure occur in a significant proportion in TMD patients and are thought to be a risk factor for maintaining and worsening symptoms [
13‐
15], but their impact is not clearly known in chronic TMD. Sleep quality in patients with TMD decreases as the number of diagnoses of painful TMD increases based on the research diagnostic criteria for TMD (RDC / TMD) Axis I [
13]. Although several studies have been conducted on sleep quality in TMD patients [
12,
16,
17], few researchers use the updated diagnostic criteria for TMD (DC / TMD).
Chronic TMD can present persistent, recurrent, or chronic pain associated with TMJ and/or muscles involved in the masticatory system [
11], which leads to highly disabling. As the etiology of chronic TMD is considered multifactorial, chronic TMD has an idiopathic basis in which the pathophysiology mechanism is not well understood. Patients with chronic TMD tend to undergo a process of central sensitization, central hyperexcitation, resulting in plastic changes in neurons at the spinal and/or supraspinal level [
18,
19]. These changes could lead to an alteration in the descending pathways of pain modulation [
20]. Through these processes, pain inhibition can be deficient in chronic TMD patients, and they can have pain even with non-noxious stimuli, or suffer from hyperalgesia and rest pain. In addition, chronic TMD is also accompanied by pain amplification due to neuroendocrine dysfunction, and sleep problems and psychological disorders are common comorbidities [
21,
22]. TMD patient ratings of poor sleep are associated with increased clinical pain severity and psychological distress [
12]. Sleep bruxism is considered an aggravating factor for TMD pain, but the relationship remains controversial [
23,
24]. However, there is little evidence to indicate that chronic TMD patients have poor sleep quality, and it is not known which factors clearly affect the sleep quality of chronic TMD patients.
In the present study, three sleep questionnaires including the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Epworth sleepiness scale (ESS), and the snoring, tiredness, observed apnea, high blood pressure (STOP)-BMI, age, neck circumference, and male gender (Bang) questionnaire were used to investigate factors influencing sleep quality and quantity in chronic TMD patients. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) is a valid, reliable, and internationally known instrument for assessing self-perceived sleep quality [
25]. Excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) is a common symptom in sleep disorders, headaches, and chronic pain [
26,
27]. The EDS status can be evaluated with the ESS, and 28.6% of TMD patients presented with EDS based on this questionnaire [
27]. Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a sleep breathing disorder characterized by repeated agitation of nocturnal breathing disruption caused by upper airway collapse, and is considered as a putative risk factor for TMD [
28]. For screening for OSA, STOP-Bang questionnaire with high reliability has been used in the clinical field [
28,
29]. The first attempt was made in which three questionnaires were simultaneously applied to chronic TMD diagnosed by DC/TMD.
This cohort study aimed to evaluate clinical characteristics and sleep-related factors in patients with chronic TMD, to determine which parameters were significantly associated with decreased sleep quality in them. Our findings in this study will support the usefulness of an integrated model of demographics and disease characteristics in explaining sleep quality deterioration in chronic TMD patients.
Discussion
This study comprehensively investigated the clinical characteristics and sleep quality of chronic TMD patients who were diagnosed based on DC/TMD Axis I. The main findings in the present study imply that chronic state TMD patients had poorer sleep than healthy controls, and the magnitude of impaired sleep was associated with increased age, female sex, certain subtypes of TMD diagnosis, including myofascial pain and headache attributed to TMD, and the number of TMD diagnoses in a person. Regarding summary scores and cut-off values of each questionnaire, the presence of EDS was a significant predictor for the poor sleep quality in chronic TMD patients.
The cause of chronic TMD is varied, and its localization, and clinical characteristics are vaguer than with acute pain. Chronic TMD is typically associated with joint dysfunctions such as disc displacement with or without reduction [
36], and psychological distress [
21]. It is difficult to infer a causal relation between sleep and chronic pain; patients with chronic pain commonly suffer from poor sleep quality [
37]. Approximately 45.5% of patients with chronic pain suffer from sleep disorders, and older age was significantly associated with pain experience [
9]. In this study, 56.9% of the chronic TMD group met the proposed cut-off of 5 of PSQI for poor sleep, compared to 22.2% of the control group that had impaired sleep. The proportion of TMD patients with poor sleep (56.9%) in the present study is higher than the rate reported among adults with TMD (43.3%) in other studies [
15,
38] but lower than those in other studies involving older TMD patients (69.6–90.0%) [
12,
39].
The etiology of chronic TMD fundamentally related to peripheral and central factors together. Peripheral factors of TMD include inflammatory processes, including synovitis and myositis, infection, or irritation. Peripheral factors are the main cause of acute pain, but as the pain becomes chronic, the importance of the central factor increases [
40]. Central factors include sleep deterioration, impairment of psychological health, and dysfunction of central pain inhibitory system [
15,
41]. Furthermore, central sensitization is a key characteristic of chronic pain presented as hypersensitivity, particularly tactile allodynia, hyperalgesia, and enhanced temporal summation [
42,
43], which commonly presents in chronic TMD patients. According to a recent meta-analysis focusing on endogenous pain control of orofacial pain including TMD, abnormal endogenous pain control function could be a potential mechanism of pain chronicization [
44]. As in other idiopathic pain disorders such as fibromyalgia and irritable bowel syndrome, TMD patients frequently present with overlapping signs and symptoms of sleep disorders [
45].
Sleep quality of chronic TMD patients was more impaired by increased age. In the present study, the increase of age (OR = 2.551, 95% CI = 1.662–3.917) was the most powerful predictor for poor sleep, and female sex (OR = 1.885, 95% CI = 1.193–2.978) was followed. In young adults, consolidated sleep at night and wakefulness during the day emerges from a balance between the brainstem, hypothalamus, and midbrain [
46]. In older adults, this operation is not effective, and decreased sleep duration, increased sleep latency, impaired sleep quality, shallow sleep, and changes in sleep structure can lead to sustained or deepening pain [
47]. In addition, sleep patterns and structures are known to change across the lifespan, with up to 50% of older adults report difficulties initiating and/or maintaining sleep [
48]. Chronic sleep disturbances are considered as indications of poor health, vice versa, older adults commonly suffer from pain syndromes, arthritis, hormonal changes, neurodegeneration, psychological distress, cancer, renal and urologic diseases, and medical comorbidities all of which can contribute to sleep disorders [
49]. Thus, older adults with chronic TMD are less likely to get enough rest and recovery through sleep than younger ones.
Female sex was also a major contributor to poor sleep quality in chronic TMD patients. There is limited recent evidence of interactions among sex, TMD chronicity, and sleep. However, it has been found that females show higher clinical and experimental pain sensitivity, and worse sleep impairments than males [
5]. Few probable causes for poor sleep quality in the female sex may be explained based on sex differences concerning mechanisms of pain of the craniofacial system [
50]. Furthermore, contribution of female sex may reflect changes of systems beyond the physical axis of the orofacial area and in line with the biopsychosocial model, blending centrally mediated factors. Especially in postmenopausal female, an increase in sleep problems may be associated with the presence of noticeable hormonal changes, age-associated changes in sleep and psychosocial distress [
5]. In clinical research, females reported TMD symptoms, headache, and had muscle tenderness and joint sounds more often than males [
51]. It will be crucial to determine whether the effect of sleep on chronic TMD pain, and vice versa, is moderated by key demographic variables, such as age or sex.
Considering the EDS, EDS was a significant predictor for poor sleep in chronic TMD patients. EDS was more prevalent in chronic TMD patients than in healthy controls (19.7% vs. 12.8%,
p < 0.05), and its OR value for poor sleep quality was 1.069. The EDS prevalence in the present study was higher than the prevalence among the general population (12–16%) [
52], and lower than 28.57% of TMD patients, the rate previously reported [
27]. The discrepancy may have occurred due to differences in age distribution, race, and method of study. A significant proportion of the general population, as well as in patients with sleep problems or chronic pain, may suffer from EDS for a variety of causes, not pathological mechanisms. In older adults, they are prone to have daytime napping and EDS and the presence of comorbid conditions such as chronic pain, sleep disorders, and frequent nighttime urination breaks [
53]. Diminished melatonin secretion and a reduced circadian modulation of rapid-eye-movement sleep and less pronounced day-night differences in the lower alpha activity occurs in the older group [
54]. Furthermore, females are more likely than males to have more trouble sleeping at night and experience EDS [
55]. Thus, EDS in chronic TMD may have different underlying mechanisms of a homeostatic drive for sleep and pain control systems according to age and sex. Hence, it is necessary to consider age-and sex-related differences in chronic TMD patients to obtain accurate results translation.
The high likelihood of OSA was not the significant predictor for poor sleep quality in chronic TMD patients. The STOP-Bang questionnaire is a great tool to easily identify patients with suspected OSA [
29]. However, traditionally, polysomnography (PSG) in a sleep laboratory has been considered as a standard tool for the diagnosis of OSA [
56]. Once OSA is identified, these patients need a definite diagnosis using the PSG. There is a limit to the extended interpretation of the results of the sleep quality and high risk of OSA in patients with chronic TMD, as the relationship between OSA and TMD. Of course, a bidirectional association between OSA and TMD have been suggested [
28,
57]. Although the clear mechanism has not been identified, oral appliances used in the treatment of OSA may be the cause of TMD with continuous mandibular advancement while sleeping [
58]. Sleep bruxism, a major risk factor for TMD, may be linked to OSA through the sleep-related arousal reactions [
59]. The link between sleep bruxism and OSA has been studied at various ages [
60‐
62], which could potentially suggest a link between TMD and OSA. Sleep bruxism and PSG were not covered in this study, but will be fully addressed in subsequent studies.
Headache attributed to TMD was associated with an increase of PSQI global scores, and a significant predictor for poor sleep. As headaches are a common symptom of accompanying TMD, few researches have been done on the nature of headache attributed to chronic TMD. TMD patients with headache reported significantly higher levels of pain and mandibular dysfunction than patients with only TMD [
63]. Headache can promote sleep disturbances, and sleep disturbances can also precede or trigger a headache attack [
64]. Moreover, sleep deterioration has been associated with an increased risk for headaches, and in individuals with chronic headaches, shorter sleep duration has been associated with more severe pain [
65]. Clearly, the underlying pathophysiology contributing to the close association and complex relationship among headache attributed to TMD, headache disorders, and sleep disorders are not fully explained. There may be complex bidirectional relationships, and can be explained by peripheral and central sensitization, malfunctions of neuroendocrine, immune, and vascular system, and even gene polymorphism.
Myofascial pain was also associated with poor sleep quality in chronic TMD patients. Similar to the present study, the substantial influence of myofascial pain on poor sleep quality in patients with TMD was documented [
66]. Furthermore, according to the TMD diagnostic subgroups, and the impact on quality of sleep and the symptom severity can vary. TMD patients with muscle-derived or myofascial pain exhibit more advanced stages of depression and somatization than patients diagnosed with TMJ disc displacement, a joint-derived problem [
67]. Other researchers also observed a higher impact in patients with myogenous complaints than those with disc disorders [
68,
69]. While joint pain is characterized by a well-defined inflammatory process, chronic muscle pain presents with enigmatic pathophysiologic mechanisms, of which central sensitization is the common factor unifying these conditions [
70]. In addition, females have more pain and widespread pain in more body areas than males, which may be related to their worse quality of sleep [
71]. Therefore, depending on the subgroup of TMD, the mechanisms by which TMD signs and symptoms occur are different, and further investigation is needed on the effects on sleep quality.
Finally, the quality of sleep was lower in chronic TMD patients with multiple diagnoses than in patients with a single diagnosis. According to Gil-Martínez et al., patients with mixed pain, having arthrogenous and myogenous origin simultaneously, showed greater craniomandibular and neck disability than patients diagnosed with chronic joint pain or muscle pain only [
72]. Patients with headache and TMDs reported significantly higher levels of pain and disability compared to patients with only TMDs [
63]. These findings can be interpreted as increasing the number of TMD subgroup diagnoses can increase the severity of TMD symptoms. Overall, chronic TMD symptoms and multiple diagnoses may have a bidirectional cross-correlation, which can impair sleep quality. Chronic TMD, especially myofascial pain, headaches attributed to TMD, and sleep disturbance factors, may share the mechanism of occurrence and exacerbation.
Limitations of this study include the case-control study design, which cannot address a causal direction of effects and suggests only associations/correlations between the variables. In addition, the DC/TMD axis II instrument was not accompanied due to limitations of our experimental setup. Compared to objective measurements, such as PSG or oximetry, PSQI addresses a longer time frame and is suitable for large scale research [
73]. Moreover, a comparison of validity with respiratory indices from polysomnographic recordings has been made for PSQI with some degree of success [
74]. However, a study design with repeated PSG may be more powerful in detecting phase-related differences. Instead of using PSG, we used self-assessment measures of sleep due to feasibility and convenience, especially because of large sample size. PSG is an objective measure of biophysiologic sleep parameters, so we are planning further studies to expand these findings with PSG. In addition, to get a deeper understanding of the relation between chronic TMD and poor sleep quality, we need to investigate their biopsychosocial aspects; however, this study did not evaluate psychological distress in patients with chronic TMD. Further studies on the psychological aspects of chronic TMD patients are ongoing.