The importance of enhanced glycemic control in patients with hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases, as aforementioned, is essential. Despite the successful management of diabetic patients with antidiabetic medications, pharmacotherapy has several pitfalls, including polypharmacy and low adherence rates. Therefore, RDN, a one-time intervention, aiming to disrupt the pathophysiological link between diabetes and SNS overactivation in addition to achieving BP control, seems a promising therapeutic strategy. Several preclinical and clinical trials have investigated the effect of RDN in hypertension and concomitantly in the glycemic status of hypertensive patients, in order to determine any beneficial effect of the procedure in glucose and insulin metabolism.
Preclinical data
One of the first animal trials that has studied the effect of denervation on glucose metabolism was in 1977, where Szalay et al. studied the effect of glucose per os loading on dogs that have been previously unilaterally surgically denervated [
24]. They demonstrated that glucose tubular reabsorption in the kidney was significantly decreased in denervated dogs, compared to healthy controls.
Schaan et al. [
25] evaluated the efficacy of bilateral denervation in rats with diabetic nephropathy; they studied 26 rats—13 of them with diabetic nephropathy and 13 healthy—that were randomized to either surgical RDN or no procedure, demonstrating a significant decrease in the levels of cortical GLUT1 protein toward normal values, without regression of diabetic-induced albuminuria. The same research team demonstrated, in an animal model of diabetic and non-diabetic rats, that there is direct association between renal sympathetic activity and GLUT2 levels, as denervation reduced GLUT2 levels in both non-diabetic and diabetic rats (-21% and -15%, respectively) and concluded that denervation modulates GLUT2 expression in kidney cells [
26].
The multiple pleiotropic effects of surgical RDN on glucose metabolism were also demonstrated in an animal setting of uninephrectomised diabetic rats [
27], in which denervation was associated with reduction in BP and renal tissue noradrenaline levels. RDN was also associated with improvement in glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity, reflected by an increase in peripheral in-cell glucose uptake, as well as significant decrease of SGLT2 levels in renal cells, followed by attenuation of diabetic glycosuria.
As forewritten, insulin sensitivity plays a pivotal role in glucose metabolism and RDN could lead to attenuation of insulin sensitivity. Iyer et al. [
28] carried out an animal study, showing that RDN could lead to regression of high hepatic insulin resistance. Specifically, they evaluated insulin sensitivity in a nonhypertensive obese canine model, before and after a 6-week period of high-fat diet, and after either surgical RDN or sham procedure. They reported a significant decrease of hepatic insulin sensitivity after RDN, suggesting a direct effect of RDN, via downregulation of hepatic gluconeogenesis through the natriuretic peptide pathway. Similar findings were demonstrated at another animal study by Chen et al. resulting that RDN, when applied unilaterally in high-fat-fed rats, led to 18.2% decrease of glucogenolysis and 16.3% decrease of gluconeogenesis; on the other hand, when applied bilaterally, it led to 31.9% decrease of glucogenolysis and 42.8% decrease of gluconeogenesis [
29].
Another possible mechanism that denervation could lead to improved glucose tolerance and metabolism in wild-type and diabetic mice may be increased glycosuria, via the decreased expression of GLUT2 in renal tissue. These findings are supported by an animal study, in which improved glucose levels and increased glycosuria are met in mice undergoing renal denervation and in hypothalamic arcuate nucleus-specific pro-opiomelanocortin deficient (ArcPomc − / −) mice, demonstrating diminished renal sympathetic activity in both animal populations [
30].
Although surgical denervation leads to glucose metabolism improvement, there were few data regarding the effect of catheter-based RDN. Pan et al. carried a study at which they divided 33 diabetic dogs into three arms: bilateral RDN arm, left RDN arm, and sham procedure arm [
31]. They demonstrated that fasting plasma glucose (9.64 ± 1.57 mmol/L vs. 5.12 ± 1.08 mmol/L;
P < 0.0001), fasting insulin (16.19 ± 1.43 mIU/mL vs. 5.07 ± 1.13 mIU/mL;
p < 0.0001), and insulin resistance in the bilateral RDN arm, had statistically significant reduction, compared with the sham arm, supporting their hypothesis that multi-electrode catheter-based leads to significant reduction of gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis 3 months post-intervention, without any procedure-related adverse events. Another animal study that evaluated the effect of increased sympathetic activity on hypertension and insulin sensitivity had similar findings [
32]. The researchers included glucose-fed rats or fructose-fed rats that underwent bilateral RDN using cryoablation or sham denervation and demonstrated that RDN led to significant decrease of renal noradrenaline spillover and plasma renin activity, with an imminent effect not only in BP reduction but also to an improvement in glucose-to-insulin ratio and insulin sensitivity.
De Oiveira et al. also studied the effect of catheter RDN on diabetic mice [
33]. For the purpose of the study, they divided mice into three groups: control, diabetic and diabetic that underwent RDN. They demonstrated that renal sympathetic activity was higher in diabetic rats, while RDN led to significant reduction of both glycemia and glycosuria, as well as reduction of SGLT2 expression on the kidney cells’ membrane and normalization of renal sympathetic activity. Regarding SGLT2 expression, newfangled evidence supports that SGLT2 expression is increased in the proximal tubule of the kidney, especially on the presence of HF [
34]. In specific, the researchers performed RDN in rats with HF and demonstrated that sodium and glucose excretion increased, as a response to dapagliflozin. Moreover, in vitro high levels of noradrenaline induced translocation of SGLT2 to the cell membrane, highlighting the pleiotropic effects that RDN could have in human patients with HF, by not only reducing BP levels, but also improving glucose metabolism and altering the expression of SGLT transporters at renal tissue.
Clinical data
Following the results of preclinical studies, a number of clinical trials investigating the use of RDN in hypertension also reported outcomes regarding glycemic control (Table
1). Bhatt et al. [
35], in a randomized trial (SYMPLICITY HTN 3) assessing the safety and efficacy of RDN in patients with resistant hypertension, investigated the effect of RDN on the levels of Hba1C, along with outcomes regarding BP controls. The trial, which included 364 patients in the RDN arm and 171 in the sham procedure arm, reported no benefit of RDN in the levels of glycated hemoglobin in all patients, as well as in patients with diabetes. Similarly, Rosa et al. [
36], in the Prague-15 study, which compared RDN to intensified pharmacotherapy with spironolactone in resistant hypertensives, showed no statistically significant reduction of fasting glucose levels in patients that received RDN treatment, compared to the pharmacotherapy group.
Table 1
Clinical Studies regarding the effect of renal denervation in parameters of glycemic control
| 2014 | RCT | 535 patients (364 RDN; 171 sham) with RHTN | 6 months | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | All patients: No significant difference (RDN: 0.06 ± 0.93%; Sham: − 0.06 ± 0.87%; p = 0.19), Diabetes patients: No significant difference(RDN: 0.12 ± 1.15%; Sham: − 0.22 ± 1.14%; p = 0.051) | Not reported | Not reported |
| 2015 | RCT | 106 patients with RHTN (52 RDN; 54 intensified pharmacotherapy) | 6 months | Non-significant decrease of FGL, compared to control (RDN: − 0.5 (− 1.0, 0.02), p = 0.06 vs Pharmacotherapy: − 0.6 (− 1.2, 0.1) p = 0.07) | Not reported | not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
| 2015 | RCT | 998 patients with RHTN | 6 months | No significant difference: Diabetics: Baseline: 153.83 ± 62.71, 6 months: 138.91 ± 48.29; p < 0.05; Non-diabetics: Baseline: 107.51 ± 111.26, 6 months: 101.88 ± 26.29; p < 0.05) | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
Pourmoghaddas et al. [ 38] | 2016 | Prospective | 30 patients with RHTN | 1 year | Significant reduction of FGL compared to baseline (111.7 ± 15.7 vs. 107.2 ± 12.9; p = 0.001) | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
| 2017 | Observational, Prospective | 39 patients with RHTN and renal failure | 1 year | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Significant reduction of the 120-OGTT(11.2 ± 5.1 vs 9.9 ± 3.6; p = 0.026) |
| 2017 | Observational, Retrospective | 63 patients with RHTN | 1 year | Not reported | Significant reduction in HOMA-IR (3.0 ± 4.6 vs. 2.5 ± 3.7, p = 0.007) | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
| 2011 | Controlled Clinical Trial | 50 patients (37 RDN; 13 control) | 3 months | FGL in RDN group: From 118 ± 3.4 to 108 ± 3.8 mg/dL (P = 0.039) Control didn’t had any significant changes | After RDN, insulin levels were significantly decreased from 20.8 ± 3.0 to 9.3 ± 2.5 μIU/mL (p = 0.006) Control didn’t had any significant changes | In RDN group: Significant reduction (5.3 ± 0.6 to 3.0 ± 0.9 ng/mL; p = 0.002) Control didn’t had any significant changes | Not reported | Significantly decreased HOMA-IR index (from 6.0 ± 0.9 to 2.4 ± 0.8; p = 0.001) in the RDN group | 2 h OGTT was reduced by 27 mg/dL (p = 0.012) in the RDN arm |
| 2015 | Observational, Retrospective | 51 patients with RHTN | 12 months | FGL was significantly increased (baseline: 7.4 ± 2.0 mmol/L; 1 year: 7.8 ± 2.6 mmol/L; p = 0.032) | Not reported | No difference in C-peptide levels (baseline: 1178 ± 429 pmol/L; 1 year: 1271 ± 565 pmol/L;
p = 0.098) | Post-RDN, higher, but not significantly, levels of HbA1c (baseline: 46.1 ± 10.5 mmol/mol; 1 year: 47.6 ± 13.6 mmol/mol; p = 0.079) | Not reported | Not reported |
| 2015 | RCT | 29 patients with metabolic syndrome and indication for RDN | 6 months and 12 months | No significant difference in FGL (baseline: 7.2 ± 1.7 mmol/L; 6 months: 7.4 ± 2.6 mmol/L; 12 months: 7.0 ± 1.3 mmol/L; p = 0.34 for both) | No significant difference in FIL (baseline: 20.9 ± 10.6 mIU/L; 6 months: 20.1 ± 9.8 mIU/L; 12 months: 19.6 ± 11.1 mIU/L; p = 0.53 for both) Insulin sensitivity was not different at 6 months (median change, 0.00; p = 0.60) and 12 months after RDN (median change, − 0.001; p = 0.77) | No significant difference in C-peptide levels (baseline: 1319 ± 410 pmol/L; 12 months: 1306 ± 468 pmol/L; p = 0.82) | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
| 2017 | RCT | 17 patients with metabolic syndrome undergoing RDN | 3 months | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | No significant change in HOMA-IR | Improved sympathetic response to OGTT (30 min OGTT: burst frequency increased to 52 ± 8 bursts per minute (p < 0.001;120 min: burst frequency increased to 54 ± 8 bursts per minute (p = 0.004) |
| 2016 | Observational, Prospective | 18 patients with metabolic syndrome | 4 months | No significant changes | No significant changes in insulin levels or insulin sensitivity | No significant changes | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
| 2017 | Observational, Open label | 8 patients with RHTN | 6 months | Endogenous glucose production, was non-significantly decreased during both the basal and clamp period (1.73 ± 0.16 versus 1.36 ± 0.19 mg/kg/min; p = 0.27 and 0.62 ± 0.14 versus 0.36 ± 0.28 mg/kg/min; p = 0.52, respectively) | No significant changes in insulin levels Insulin sensitivity was non-significantly improved (baseline M-value: 2.68 ± 0.28 mg/kg/min; 6 months; 3.07 ± 0.41 mg/kg/min; p = 0.12) | No significant changed | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
| 2017 | Observational | 57 patients with RHTN | 3 months | Not reported | FIL was significantly higher after RDN (baseline: 20.05 ± 1.46 Uu/mL; 3 months: 29.70 ± 2.51 uU/ml; p = 0.002) | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
| 2011 | Observational | 10 patients with SA and RHTN | 6 months | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Significant decrease (median baseline: 6.1%; median 6 months: 5.6%; p < 0.05) | Not reported | Significant decrease of glucose at 120 min OGTT (median baseline: 7.0 mmol/L; median 6 months: 6.4 mmol/L; p = 0.05) |
| 2017 | Observational | 20 patients with SA and RHTN | 6 months | FGL: non-statistically significant reduction (−0.22 mmol/L, 95% CI: −0.22, −0.77; p = 0.46) | Not significantly changed | Not reported | Not significantly changed | Not reported | Glucose levels were significantly reduced after 120 min OGTT (−1.14 mmol/L; 95%CI: −0.22, −2.06; p = 0.03) |
Warchol-Celinska et al. [ 50] | 2018 | Prospective Randomized | 60 patients with SA and RHTN (30 RDN; 30 control) | 3 months | FGL: No significant difference in the RDN arm (baseline: 6.8 ± 2.1 mmol/L; 3 months: 7.1 ± 2.9 mmol/L; p = 0.70) | FIL: No significant difference in the RDN arm (baseline: 13.4 ± 9.3 mmol/L; 3 months: 12.8 ± 9.8 mmol/L; p = 0.48) | Not reported | No
significant difference after RDN (baseline: 6.3 ± 1.1%; 3 months: 6.5 ± 1.8%; p = 0.79) | Not reported | Not reported |
| 2022 | Observational, Prospective | 59 patients with type 2 DM and RHTN | 1 year | FGL: No significant change in patients with RRI ≥ 0.7 (+ 0.12 mmol/L; 95% CI: − 0.92, 1.17; p = 0.804) and RRI < 0.7 (+ 0.22 mmol/L; 95% CI: − 0.70,0.25; p = 0.337) | Not reported | Not reported | No significant change in patients with RRI ≥ 0.7 (+ 0.11%; 95% CI: − 0.41, 0.64; p = 0.660) and RRI < 0.7 (− 0.13%; 95% CI: − 0.80,0.53; p = 0.674) | Not reported | Not reported |
| 2021 | Observational | 20 non-diabetic patients with RHTN | 24 months | FGL: No significant changes observed (baseline: 5.9 ± 0.8 mmol/L; 24 months: 5.7 ± 0.9 mmol/L; p = 0.08) | FIL: No significant changes observed (baseline: 134 ± 85 pmol/L; 24 months: 159 ± 54 pmol/L; p = 0.29) | Fasting C-peptide levels not significantly different (baseline: 1242 pmol/L, 95% CI: 890–2509; 24 months: 1477 pmol/L, 95%CI: 1002–2295; p = 0.13) | HbA1C not significantly changed (baseline: 5.6 ± 0.3%; 24 months: 5.6 ± 0.5%; p = 0.93) | HOMA-IR not significantly changed IR (baseline: 6.3 ± 3.9; 24 months: 7,0 ± 2.9; p = 0.45) | Not Reported |
Following studies, however, also investigating the role of RDN in BP control, showed benefit after RDN in several parameters of glucose control. In specific, Bohm et al. [
37] evaluated the RDN-associated BP reduction in patients with hypertension, as well as the HbA1c and fasting glucose levels. The study, which enrolled a total of 998 patients, showed no difference between baseline and 6 months levels of HbA1c in both diabetics and non-diabetics, while also reporting significant reduction of fasting glucose levels in both aforementioned groups (
p < 0.05). Similar reduction in fasting glucose levels were observed in a study by Pourmoghaddas et al. [
38], which included 30 patients with resistant hypertension undergoing RDN. The investigators reported a reduction in fasting glucose levels of −4.50 mg/dL at 1-year follow-up, as well as significant reduction in BMI and waist circumference, parameters associated with metabolic syndrome (
p = 0.008 and
p = 0.003, respectively).
Moreover, Hopper et al. [
39], in the SYMPLICITY HF Feasibility study, which included 39 patients with HF and renal impairment, showed significant reduction of the 120-min oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at 12 months, compared to baseline. Also, similar studies have shown possible alterations of insulin sensitivity mediated by RDN. More specifically, Aripov et al. [
40], in a study assessing RDN’s effect in 63 patients with resistant hypertension, noted a significant reduction of the homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) index, which was significantly reduced by a mean of 0.5 at 12 months.
Mahfoud et al. [
41], in a pilot study, aimed to assess the impact of RDN in several aspects regarding glucose and insulin homeostasis. They enrolled 50 patients, out of which 37 underwent RDN and 17 served as control, and they evaluated them 1- and 3-month post-intervention. Besides significant reductions in BP in both follow-up periods, the study also revealed significant decrease in fasting glucose levels, insulin and C-peptide levels in the RDN cohort. Furthermore, patients undergoing RDN had significantly decreased HOMA-IR index and 2 h OGTT was reduced by 27 mg/dL (
p = 0.012). Interestingly, similar changed were not observed in the control group, implying the positive effect of RDN in glycemic control markers.
Despite earlier positive results, Matous et al. [
42], in a subsequent study, enrolled 51 resistant hypertensives, which were grouped regarding the presence of diabetes and the number of radiofrequency applications to each renal artery (greater or lower than 4). Regardless of the group on which each patient was assigned, the investigators reported significantly increased fasting levels of glucose, higher levels of HbA1c and no difference in the levels of C-peptide.
Similarly, Verloop et al. [
43], in the DREAMS randomized controlled trial, evaluated the effect of RDN in patients with metabolic syndrome. In particular, they enrolled 29 patients with metabolic syndrome undergoing RDN and assessed, besides BP post-intervention, a number of metabolic markers and insulin sensitivity. The median insulin sensitivity, as assessed by the simple index assessing insulin sensitivity OGTT (SIiSOGTT) was not different at 6 months and 12 months after RDN. Furthermore, fasting glucose levels, fasting insulin levels and C-peptide levels were not significantly changed post-RDN.
Tsioufis et al. [
44] also investigated the effect of RDN in the sympathetic control of glycemic status. In specific, the enrolled 17 hypertensive patients which fulfilled 4 or more criteria for metabolic syndrome, and assessed muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) both at rest and during 75 g OGTT. At 3-month follow-up, the investigators reported a reduction of MSNA bursts at rest and improved sympathetic response to OGTT in the RDN group. However, no significant improvement was noticed in the HOMA-IR index (p = NS).
In another study, Miroslawska et al. [
45] investigated insulin resistance in 23 patients with resistant hypertension, undergoing RDN, using a hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic step clamp (HEC). Out of them, 18 met the criteria for metabolic syndrome. At 4 months after RDN, mean fasting plasma glucose, median insulin and C-peptide concentration remained unchanged, compared to baseline. Furthermore, during HEC, the endogenous glucose production remained unchanged, while at high-dose insulin infusion, the measured glucose disposal remained unchanged to baseline. These results, thus, were indicative of no effect of RDN in peripheral and hepatic insulin sensitivity in patients with resistant hypertension.
Kampmann et al. [
46], in their respective trial, aimed to study the effect of RDN in patients with resistant hypertension without diabetes. They included, therefore, 8 patients undergoing RDN, which were re-examined regarding BP metabolic parameters at 6 months. Regarding insulin sensitivity, as assessed by HEC and expressed as M-value, it was improved non-significantly, however investigators reported a significant correlation between greater insulin improvement and lower BMI (
R = 0.75,
p = 0.03). Moreover, the endogenous glucose production, as assessed by a 3-
3H glucose tracer, was also non-significantly decreased during both the basal and clamp period of the test. Finally, no difference was reported in insulin, C-peptide, IGF-1 and glucagon levels.
Eikelis et al. [
47], in a trial investigating how RDN affects the adipokine profile of patients with resistant hypertension, also investigated the response of insulin levels to sympathetic denervation. The study, which included 57 patients, showed at 3-month follow-up, besides a significant increase in adiponectin concentration, a significantly higher fasting insulin concentration after RDN, suggesting a possible positive effect in both lipid and glucose homeostasis.
Witkowksi et al. [
48], in a trial assessing RDN in patients with resistant hypertension and sleep apnea, enrolled 10 patients, which were also followed up for glycemic control markers. The study showed that, in resistant hypertensive patients with sleep apnea, there was a significant decrease of plasma glucose concentration 2 h post-glucose administration, as well as in HbA1c levels.
Similarly, Daniels et al. [
49] also investigated the effect of RDN in 20 patients with RDN and sleep apnea. At 6-month follow-up, the investigators reported a non-statistically significant reduction of fasting glucose levels and a significant reduction of glucose levels following a 120 min OGTT. Other parameters, such as insulin sensitivity, HbA1c and percentage of pancreatic beta cell function, did not alter significantly from baseline at the time of the follow-up. Moreover, another study by Warchol-Celinska et al. [
50] involving 60 patients with resistant hypertension and sleep apnea, also examined the effect of RDN on glycemic control variables. The total cohort of patients was randomly assigned to either RDN arm (
n = 30) or control arm (
n = 30). Regarding glucose metabolism, at 3 months the study did not show any change from baseline at the RDN arm in fasting glucose levels, fasting insulin levels or HbA1c levels.
A following study by Manukyan et al. [
51], which aimed to evaluate RDN and its relation to renal resistance and function, also evaluated several parameters in regards to glycemic control. The trial included 59 patients with resistant hypertension and type 2 diabetes. At 12-month follow-up, the investigators reported no significant changes in fasting plasma glucose and HbA1c, in both patients with a renal resistance index (RRI) ≥ 0.7 and < 0.7.
Finally, an observational study by Miroslawska et al. [
52] evaluated long-term metabolic effects of RDN in patients with resistant hypertension. In specific, 20 resistant hypertensives without diabetes underwent RDN and were followed up at 6 and 24 months. The study reported no significant change in several metabolic parameters, such as HbA1c, fasting glucose levels, fasting insulin levels, fasting C-peptide levels and HOMA-IR.