Introduction
Materials and methods
Study design
Study sample
Dietary assessment
Chronotype
Diet-chrono-alignment score (DCAS)
Anthropometric measures
Assessment of potential covariates
Statistical analyses
Results
Chronotype | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
First assessment | Last assessment | |||
Early | Late | Early | Late | |
Female (n (%)) | 30 (15) | 51 (26) | 40 (20) | 41 (21) |
Follow-up (years) | – | – | 1.85 ± 1.55 | 1.30 ± 1.51 |
Number of questionnaires | 1 (1, 1) | 1 (1, 1) | 2 (1, 3) | 2 (1, 3) |
Age (years) | 12.19 ± 1.81 | 12.26 ± 1.74 | 13.94 ± 1.70 | 13.65 ± 1.67 |
Puberty | ||||
Boys | ||||
ATO | 10.26 ± 1.70 | 10.28 ± 1.46 | ||
APHV | 12.91 ± 2.42 | 12.71 ± 2.00 | ||
Girls | ||||
ATO | 9.65 ± 1.75 | 8.76 ± 1.55 | ||
APHV | 12.80 ± 2.57 | 11.26 ± 1.86 | ||
Anthropometric data | ||||
BMI (kg/m2) | 18.56 ± 4.47 | 18.88 ± 3.13 | 19.76 ± 4.41 | 19.81 ± 3.32 |
BMI-SDS (kg/m2) | −0.17 ± 1.17 | 0.03 ± 0.94 | −0.12 ± 1.15 | 0.05 ± 1.00 |
FMI (kg/m2) | 2.95 (1.98, 4.22) | 3.27 (2.41, 4.72) | 3.26 (2.08, 5.21) | 3.58 (2.67, 4.86) |
FFMI (kg/m2) | 14.55 ± 1.65 | 14.97 ± 1.73 | 15.27 ± 1.66 | 15.56 ± 1.87 |
Chronobiological variables (h:mm) | ||||
MSFsc | 2:49 ± 0:40 | 3:57 ± 0:51 | 3:15 ± 0:38 | 4:31 ± 0:57 |
Sleep duration | 8:53 ± 1:00 | 8:52 ± 0:52 | 8:09 ± 1:00 | 8:26 ± 0:57 |
Using an alarm during the weekend | 7 (8) | 12 (11) | 10 (10) | 11 (11) |
Spring | 17 (9) | 18 (9) | 19 (10) | 17 (9) |
Summer | 22 (11) | 37 (19) | 27 (14) | 36 (18) |
Autumn | 22 (11) | 23 (11) | 27 (14) | 15 (8) |
Winter | 25 (13) | 32 (16) | 26 (13) | 29 (15) |
Other risk factors | ||||
Low physical activity (kcal/d)b | 38 (19) | 56 (29) | 45 (23) | 45 (23) |
Parental characteristics | ||||
Maternal education (high)c | 77 (39) | 91 (46) | 89 (45) | 79 (40) |
Maternal employment (yes) | 80 (41) | 101 (52) | 92 (47) | 89 (45) |
Maternal overweight (yes)d | 37 (19) | 46 (32) | 38 (19) | 45 (23) |
Smoking in the household (yes) | 6 (3) | 17 (9) | 7 (4) | 15 (8) |
Chronotype | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
First assessment | Last assessment | |||
Early | Late | Early | Late | |
DCAS (min) | 00:19 (−0:01, 2:05) | −0:07 (−1:18, 1:38) | 0:02 (−1:38, 1:42) | 0:23 (−1:07, 1:53) |
Time of ‘highest caloric intake’ (h:mm) | 14:47 ± 2:26 | 15:32 ± 2:18 | 15:23 ± 2:15 | 15:41 ± 2:27 |
Dietary intake over the whole day | ||||
TEI (kcal/d) | 1880 (1625, 2088) | 1833 (1575, 2112) | 1950 (1629, 2288) | 1932 (1672, 2289) |
Fat (%TEI) | 34 ± 6 | 35 ± 6 | 35 ± 6 | 36 ± 6 |
Carbohydrates (%TEI) | 51 ± 6 | 51 ± 6 | 51 ± 6 | 51 ± 6 |
Protein (%TEI) | 13 ± 3 | 13 ± 2 | 14 ± 3 | 14 ± 2 |
Dietary intake for the eating occasion with ‘highest caloric intake’ | ||||
TEI (kcal) | 689 ± 27 | 654 ± 25 | 724 ± 34 | 731 ± 27 |
%TEI | 37 ± 7 | 35 ± 6 | 37 ± 7 | 37 ± 6 |
Carbohydrates (%E) | 47 ± 8 | 47 ± 9 | 45 ± 10 | 45 ± 11 |
Protein (%E) | 14 ± 3 | 14 ± 4 | 15 ± 4 | 14 ± 4 |
Fat (%E) | 38 ± 8 | 38 ± 9 | 39 ± 9 | 39 ± 10 |
Dietary intake morning before 11 am | ||||
%TEI | 27 ± 11 | 23 ± 9 | 24 ± 9 | 22 ± 11 |
Daytime dietary intake 11 am to 6 pm | ||||
%TEI | 43 ± 11 | 43 ± 10 | 43 ± 12 | 43 ± 11 |
Dietary intake evening after 6 pm | ||||
%TEI | 28 ± 11 | 32 ± 9 | 31 ± 12 | 33 ± 9 |
Breakfast skippingb | ||||
Yes | 5 (3) | 8 (4) | 8 (4) | 14 (7) |
Lunch skippingc | ||||
Yes | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (1) | 0 (0) |
Dinner skippingd | ||||
Yes | 3 (3) | 0 (0) | 3 (3) | 0 (0) |
No weekdays per diet recordse | ||||
1 | 39 (20) | 45 (23) | 47 (24) | 47 (24) |
2 | 18 (9) | 24 (12) | 18 (9) | 18 (9) |
3 | 29 (15) | 41 (21) | 34 (17) | 34 (17) |
Crude model | Final adjusted model | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
N (n) | ß and (CI) | p | ß and (CI) | p | |
BMI | |||||
Cross-sectional association between dietary alignment and BMI-SDS (model a) | |||||
Overall | 401 (196) | 0.77 (−0.74, 2.27) | 0.31 | 0.72 (−0.74, 2.18) | 0.33 |
Early chronotype | 200 (86) | 0.57 (−1.66, 2.80) | 0.62 | 0.60 (−1.72, 2.92) | 0.59 |
Late chronotype | 201 (110) | 1.01 (−0.91, 2.93) | 0.28 | 0.85 (−1.05, 2.75) | 0.34 |
p value for interaction* = 0.01 | |||||
Longitudinal association between dietary alignment and BMI-SDS (model b) | |||||
Overall | 401 (196) | 0.16 (−0.24, 0.56) | 0.43 | 0.06 (−0.34, 0.47) | 0.76 |
Early chronotype | 200 (86) | 0.02 (−0.54, 0.58) | 0.94 | −0.02 (−0.60, 0.57) | 0.96 |
Late chronotype | 201 (110) | 0.81 (0.09, 1.53) | 0.03 | 0.48 (−0.36, 1.32) | 0.23 |
p value for interaction* = 0.001 | |||||
Association between change in alignment and change in BMI-SDS (model c) | |||||
Overall | 401 (196) | 1.12 (−0.31, 0.56) | 0.57 | 0.09 (−0.36, 0.53) | 0.69 |
Early chronotype | 200 (86) | 0.34 (−0.31, 0.99) | 0.29 | 0.37 (−0.26, 0.99) | 0.23 |
Late chronotype | 201 (110) | 0.41 (−0.33, 1.14) | 0.26 | −0.04 (−0.85, 1.32) | 0.92 |
p value for interaction* = 0.03 | |||||
FFMI | |||||
Cross-sectional association between dietary alignment and FFMI (model a) | |||||
Overall | 401 (196) | 0.54 (−1.68, 2.75) | 0.63 | 0.69 (−1.47, 2.85) | 0.52 |
Early chronotype | 200 (86) | 1.58 (−1.47, 4.63) | 0.30 | 1.69 (−1.43, 4.82) | 0.27 |
Late chronotype | 201 (110) | −0.81 (−3.89, 2.28) | 0.59 | −1.07 (−4.13, 1.99) | 0.45 |
p value for interaction* = 0.47 | |||||
Longitudinal association between dietary alignment and FFMI (model b) | |||||
Overall | 401 (196) | 0.17 (−0.66, 0.99) | 0.69 | 0.21 (−0.60, 1.01) | 0.61 |
Early chronotype | 200 (86) | −0.40 (−1.38, 0.58) | 0.41 | −0.33 (−1.30, 0.64) | 0.36 |
Late chronotype | 201 (110) | 1.56 (−0.09, 3.20) | 0.06 | 1.92 (0.15, 3.69) | 0.04 |
p value for interaction* = 0.03 | |||||
Association between change in alignment and change in FFMI (model c) | |||||
Overall | 401 (196) | 0.00 (−0.84, 0.85) | 0.99 | 0.11 (−0.73, 0.95) | 0.80 |
Early chronotype | 200 (86) | −0.31 (−1.58, 0.96) | 0.62 | −0.06 (−1.15, 1.03) | 0.97 |
Late chronotype | 201 (110) | 0.67 (−0.84, 2.18) | 0.36 | 0.28 (−1.23, 1.80) | 0.66 |
p value for interaction* = 0.69 | |||||
Log10FMI | |||||
Cross-sectional association between dietary alignment and FMI (model a) | |||||
Overall | 401 (196) | 0.28 (−0.48, 1.04) | 0.47 | 0.26 (−0.47; 0.99) | 0.48 |
Early chronotype | 200 (86) | −0.08 (−1.22, 1.05) | 0.88 | −0.05 (−1.19, 1.10) | 0.93 |
Late chronotype | 201 (110) | 0.70 (−0.24, 1.69) | 0.14 | 0.64 (−0.31, 1.58) | 0.16 |
p value for interaction* = 0.17 | |||||
Longitudinal association between dietary alignment and FMI (model b | |||||
Overall | 401 (196) | 0.03 (−0.21, 0.28) | 0.78 | −0.01 (−0.26; 0.24) | 0.92 |
Early chronotype | 200 (86) | 0.11 (−0.26, 0.47) | 0.55 | 0.13 (−0.23, 0.49) | 0.46 |
Late chronotype | 201 (110) | 0.17 (−0.28, 0.58) | 0.40 | −0.06 (−0.56, 0.44) | 0.80 |
p value for interaction* = 0.35 | |||||
Association between change in alignment and change in FMI (model c) | |||||
Overall | 401 (196) | 0.14 (−0.12, 0.39) | 0.29 | 0.10 (−0.16, 0.37) | 0.43 |
Early chronotype | 200 (86) | 0.20 (−0.21, 0.60) | 0.33 | 0.21 (−0.22, 0.65) | 0.31 |
Late chronotype | 201 (110) | 0.31 (−0.17, 0.79) | 0.20 | 0.05 (−0.46, 0.56) | 0.83 |
p value for interaction* = 0.61 |